Recoverin, a member of the neuronal calcium sensor branch of the EF-hand superfamily, serves as a calcium sensor that regulates rhodopsin kinase (RK) activity in retinal rod cells. We report here the NMR structure of Ca 2؉ -bound recoverin bound to a functional N-terminal fragment of rhodopsin kinase (residues 1-25, called RK25). The overall main-chain structure of recoverin in the complex is similar to structures of Ca 2؉ -bound recoverin in the absence of target (<1.8 Å root-mean-square deviation). The first eight residues of recoverin at the N terminus are solvent-exposed, enabling the N-terminal myristoyl group to interact with target membranes, and Ca 2؉ is bound at the second and third EF-hands of the protein. RK25 in the complex forms an amphipathic helix (residues 4 -16). The hydrophobic face of the RK25 helix (Val-9, Val-10, Ala-11, Ala-14, and Phe-15) interacts with an exposed hydrophobic groove on the surface of recoverin lined by side-chain atoms of Trp-31, Phe-35, Phe-49, Ile-52, Tyr-53, Phe-56, Phe-57, Tyr-86, and Leu-90. Residues of recoverin that contact RK25 are highly conserved, suggesting a similar target binding site structure in all neuronal calcium sensor proteins. Site-specific mutagenesis and deletion analysis confirm that the hydrophobic residues at the interface are necessary and sufficient for binding. The recoverin-RK25 complex exhibits Ca 2؉ -induced binding to rhodopsin immobilized on concanavalin-A resin. We propose that Ca 2؉ -bound recoverin is bound between rhodopsin and RK in a ternary complex on rod outer segment disk membranes, thereby blocking RK interaction with rhodopsin at high Ca 2؉ .Calcium ion (Ca 2ϩ ) in retinal rod cells plays a critical role in regulating the phototransduction cascade in vision (1-3). Recoverin, a 23 kDa Ca 2ϩ -binding protein and member of the EF-hand superfamily, serves as a Ca 2ϩ sensor in retinal rods (4, 5). Recoverin prolongs the lifetime of photoexcited rhodopsin by inhibiting rhodopsin kinase only at high Ca 2ϩ levels (5-8).Hence, recoverin makes the desensitization of rhodopsin responsive to Ca 2ϩ, and the shortened lifetime of photoexcited rhodopsin at low Ca 2ϩ levels may promote visual recovery and contribute to the adaptation to background light. More recently, recoverin was shown to have a different role in synaptic termini and was found localized in the rod inner segment (9). Upon light activation, 98% of recoverin is detected in the rod inner segment, whereas in the dark more than 10% of recoverin returns to the outer segment (10), consistent with the conventional role of recoverin in the inhibition of RK.Recoverin contains four EF-hand Ca 2ϩ binding motifs and a myristoyl or related fatty acyl group covalently attached at the N terminus (11). The cooperative binding of two Ca 2ϩ to the second and third EF-hands (EF-2 and EF-3) induces the binding of myristoylated, but not unmyristoylated recoverin to rod outer segment disc membranes (12, 13). The three-dimensional structures of myristoylated recoverin with 0, 1, and 2 Ca 2ϩ bound ha...
BackgroundThe malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum EBA-175 binds its receptor sialic acids on glycophorin A when invading erythrocytes. The receptor-binding region (RII) contains two cysteine-rich domains with similar cysteine motifs (F1 and F2). Functional relationships between F1 and F2 domains and characterization of EBA-175 were studied using specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against these domains.Methods and FindingsFive mAbs specific for F1 or F2 were generated. Three mAbs specific for F2 potently blocked binding of EBA-175 to erythrocytes, and merozoite invasion of erythrocytes (IC50 10 to 100 µg/ml IgG in growth inhibition assays). A mAb specific for F1 blocked EBA-175 binding and merozoite invasion less effectively. The difference observed between the IC50 of F1 and F2 mAbs was not due to differing association and disassociation rates as determined by surface plasmon resonance. Four of the mAbs recognized conformation-dependent epitopes within F1 or F2. Used in combination, F1 and F2 mAbs blocked the binding of native EBA-175 to erythrocytes and inhibited parasite invasion synergistically in vitro. MAb R217, the most potent, did not recognize sporozoites, 3-day hepatocyte stage parasites, nor rings, trophozoites, gametocytes, retorts, ookinetes, and oocysts but recognized 6-day hepatocyte stage parasites, and schizonts. Even though efficient at blocking binding to erythrocytes and inhibiting invasion into erythrocytes, MAb R217 did not inhibit sporozoite invasion and development in hepatocytes in vitro.ConclusionsThe role of the F1 and F2 domains in erythrocyte invasion and binding was elucidated with mAbs. These mAbs interfere with native EBA-175 binding to erythrocyte in a synergistic fashion. The stage specific expression of EBA-175 showed that the primary focus of activity was the merozoite stage. A recombinant RII protein vaccine consisting of both F1 and F2 domains that could induce synergistic activity should be optimal for induction of antibody responses that interfere with merozoite invasion of erythrocytes.
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