This meta-analysis assessed the effect of word-problem-solving interventions on the word-problem-solving accuracy of students identified as having a learning disability (LD) or at risk for an LD in kindergarten to the sixth grade. Eighteen randomized control group designed studies met the inclusion criteria. Overall, word-problem-solving interventions yielded a significant positive effect on the word-problem-solving accuracy of students in elementary grades with LD (effect size [ES] = 1.08). Instructional components that underlie effective studies were also identified. Results suggest that peer interaction and transfer instructions yielded large effects on treatment outcomes. Results also suggested that intensive interventions (50-min sessions, 34 total sessions) in Grade 3 regardless of instructional setting yielded the largest ESs. These findings support the need to develop and implement quality evidence-based instruction in classroom settings (Tier 1 instruction) prior to utilizing additional resources for more intensive and individualized intervention.

Buchman, & Sczesniak, 2007), studies that investigate instructional scaffolding (IS) that improve word-problemsolving (WPS) comprehension for minority students at risk for math difficulties (MD) are emerging (e.g., Fuchs & Fuchs, 2007; Orosco, 2014). The term minority is used to refer to students' racial/ethnic identification based on the U.S. Census (e.g., Hispanic, African American, two or more races). Instructional Scaffolding (IS) Rooted in sociocultural theory, IS is defined as an interactive process of learning that is constructed by teachers by gradually decreasing instructional support as students develop the skills necessary to become independent (e.g.,

This study investigated whether a latent class of children with math difficulties (MD) or math learning disabilities (MLD) emerged within a heterogeneous sample of learners. A latent class analysis was computed on children (N = 447) in Grade 3 who were administered a battery of math, reading, and cognitive measures. The analysis yielded four important findings. First, a discrete latent class of children with MD (15% of the sample) or MLD (10% of the sample) emerged when setting cut-off scores at or below the 25th and 11th percentile, respectively. Second, model testing yielded a high probability of finding children with MD or MLD with reading problems as well as a latent class of low problem solvers with average reading and calculation scores. Third, knowledge of problem solving component processes, estimation and the executive component of WM were significant and unique correlates of latent classes at both cut-off points. Finally, children defined as MD at 25th percentile cut-off but not 11th percentile cut-off yielded high effect sizes on measures of reading, but not on cognitive measures, when compared with children identified at risk at both cut-off points. The results suggest that a statistically distinct latent class of children at risk for MD or MLD can be separated from a heterogeneous sample of children who vary in math, reading and fluid intelligence.

I would also like to thank Dr. Rollanda O'Connor. Thank you for your insight and encouragement over the past few years. I have learned so much from you, in the academic realm and beyond. Thank you, Dr. Austin Johnson, for your support and thoughtful feedback. Many thanks go to Dr. Michael Orosco for your mentorship and for believing in me from the beginning. Finally, thank you to the classmates and friends who helped make the past few years enjoyable. I am excited to see what each of you will accomplish in years to come. A special thanks to Tali Kasser for your help on this dissertation study. v DEDICATION I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my family. First, to my loving husband, Richard-as with anything else in life, we did it together. To my beautiful son, Jacob-I hope to always be the person that you believe I am. To my biggest cheerleaders, my parents and brother-thank you for your unconditional love and support. You taught me how to work hard and love well. I hope I make you proud. My deepest gratitude and love to the Kong family, who have taken me in as their own. Thank you for your encouragement and guidance throughout the years. Above all, everything I have is only because of God's abundant grace. In your presence, there is fullness of joy. Soli Deo gloria. vi

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