Background We aimed to ascertain the cumulative risk of fatal or critical care unit-treated COVID-19 in people with diabetes and compare it with that of people without diabetes, and to investigate risk factors for and build a crossvalidated predictive model of fatal or critical care unit-treated COVID-19 among people with diabetes. MethodsIn this cohort study, we captured the data encompassing the first wave of the pandemic in Scotland, from March 1, 2020, when the first case was identified, to July 31, 2020, when infection rates had dropped sufficiently that shielding measures were officially terminated. The participants were the total population of Scotland, including all people with diabetes who were alive 3 weeks before the start of the pandemic in Scotland (estimated Feb 7, 2020). We ascertained how many people developed fatal or critical care unit-treated COVID-19 in this period from the Electronic Communication of Surveillance in Scotland database (on virology), the RAPID database of daily hospitalisations, the Scottish Morbidity Records-01 of hospital discharges, the National Records of Scotland death registrations data, and the Scottish Intensive Care Society and Audit Group database (on critical care). Among people with fatal or critical care unit-treated COVID-19, diabetes status was ascertained by linkage to the national diabetes register, Scottish Care Information Diabetes. We compared the cumulative incidence of fatal or critical care unit-treated COVID-19 in people with and without diabetes using logistic regression. For people with diabetes, we obtained data on potential risk factors for fatal or critical care unit-treated COVID-19 from the national diabetes register and other linked health administrative databases. We tested the association of these factors with fatal or critical care unit-treated COVID-19 in people with diabetes, and constructed a prediction model using stepwise regression and 20-fold cross-validation. Findings Of the total Scottish population onMarch 1, 2020 (n=5 463 300), the population with diabetes was 319 349 (5•8%), 1082 (0•3%) of whom developed fatal or critical care unit-treated COVID-19 by July 31, 2020, of whom 972 (89•8%) were aged 60 years or older. In the population without diabetes, 4081 (0•1%) of 5 143 951 people developed fatal or critical care unit-treated COVID-19. As of July 31, the overall odds ratio (OR) for diabetes, adjusted for age and sex, was 1•395 (95% CI 1•304-1•494; p<0•0001, compared with the risk in those without diabetes. The OR was 2•396 (1•815-3•163; p<0•0001) in type 1 diabetes and 1•369 (1•276-1•468; p<0•0001) in type 2 diabetes. Among people with diabetes, adjusted for age, sex, and diabetes duration and type, those who developed fatal or critical care unit-treated COVID-19 were more likely to be male, live in residential care or a more deprived area, have a COVID-19 risk condition, retinopathy, reduced renal function, or worse glycaemic control, have had a diabetic ketoacidosis or hypoglycaemia hospitalisation in the past 5 years, be on more...

Background The objectives of this study were to identify risk factors for severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and to lay the basis for risk stratification based on demographic data and health records. Methods and findings The design was a matched case-control study. Severe COVID-19 was defined as either a positive nucleic acid test for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in the national database followed by entry to a critical care unit or death within 28 days or a death certificate with COVID-19 as underlying cause. Up to 10 controls per case matched for sex, age, and primary care practice were selected from the national population register. For this analysis-based on ascertainment of positive test results up to 6 June 2020, entry to critical care up to 14 June 2020, and deaths registered up to 14 June 2020-there were 36,948 controls and 4,272 cases, of which 1,894 (44%) were care home residents. All diagnostic codes from the past 5 years of hospitalisation records and all drug codes from prescriptions dispensed during the past 240 days were extracted. Rate ratios for severe COVID-19 were estimated by conditional logistic regression. In a logistic regression using the age-sex distribution of the national population, the odds ratios for severe disease were 2.

Background The objective of this study was to investigate the relation of severe COVID-19 to prior drug prescribing. Methods Severe cases were defined by entry to critical care or fatal outcome. For this matched case-control study (REACT-SCOT), all 4251 cases of severe COVID-19 in Scotland since the start of the epidemic were matched for age, sex and primary care practice to 36,738 controls from the population register. Records were linked to hospital discharges since June 2015 and dispensed prescriptions issued in primary care during the last 240 days. Results Severe COVID-19 was strongly associated with the number of non-cardiovascular drug classes dispensed. This association was strongest in those not resident in a care home, in whom the rate ratio (95% CI) associated with dispensing of 12 or more drug classes versus none was 10.8 (8.8, 13.3), and in those without any of the conditions designated as conferring increased risk of COVID-19. Of 17 drug classes postulated at the start of the epidemic to be “medications compromising COVID”, all were associated with increased risk of severe COVID-19 and these associations were present in those without any of the designated risk conditions. The fraction of cases in the population attributable to exposure to these drug classes was 38%. The largest effect was for antipsychotic agents: rate ratio 4.18 (3.42, 5.11). Other drug classes with large effects included proton pump inhibitors (rate ratio 2.20 (1.72, 2.83) for = 2 defined daily doses/day), opioids (3.66 (2.68, 5.01) for = 50 mg morphine equivalent/day) and gabapentinoids. These associations persisted after adjusting for covariates and were stronger with recent than with non-recent exposure. Conclusions Severe COVID-19 is associated with polypharmacy and with drugs that cause sedation, respiratory depression, or dyskinesia; have anticholinergic effects; or affect the gastrointestinal system. These associations are not easily explained by co-morbidity. Measures to reduce the burden of mortality and morbidity from COVID-19 should include reinforcing existing guidance on reducing overprescribing of these drug classes and limiting inappropriate polypharmacy. Registration ENCEPP number https://EUPAS35558

Background Clinically vulnerable individuals have been advised to shield themselves during the COVID-19 epidemic. The objectives of this study were to investigate (1) the rate ratio of severe COVID-19 associated with eligibility for the shielding programme in Scotland across the first and second waves of the epidemic and (2) the relation of severe COVID-19 to transmission-related factors in those in shielding and the general population. Methods In a matched case-control design, all 178,578 diagnosed cases of COVID-19 in Scotland from 1 March 2020 to 18 February 2021 were matched for age, sex and primary care practice to 1,744,283 controls from the general population. This dataset (REACT-SCOT) was linked to the list of 212,702 individuals identified as eligible for shielding. Severe COVID-19 was defined as cases that entered critical care or were fatal. Rate ratios were estimated by conditional logistic regression. Results With those without risk conditions as reference category, the univariate rate ratio for severe COVID-19 was 3.21 (95% CI 3.01 to 3.41) in those with moderate risk conditions and 6.3 (95% CI 5.8 to 6.8) in those eligible for shielding. The highest rate was in solid organ transplant recipients: rate ratio 13.4 (95% CI 9.6 to 18.8). Risk of severe COVID-19 increased with the number of adults but decreased with the number of school-age children in the household. Severe COVID-19 was strongly associated with recent exposure to hospital (defined as 5 to 14 days before presentation date): rate ratio 12.3 (95% CI 11.5 to 13.2) overall. The population attributable risk fraction for recent exposure to hospital peaked at 50% in May 2020 and again at 65% in December 2020. Conclusions The effectiveness of shielding vulnerable individuals was limited by the inability to control transmission in hospital and from other adults in the household. Mitigating the impact of the epidemic requires control of nosocomial transmission.

Objectives -- To investigate the relation of severe COVID-19 to prior drug prescribing. Design -- Matched case-control study (REACT-SCOT) based on record linkage to hospital discharges since June 2015 and dispensed prescriptions issued in primary care during the last 240 days. Setting -- Scottish population. Main outcome measure -- Severe COVID-19, defined by entry to critical care or fatal outcome. Participants -- All 4272 cases of severe COVID-19 in Scotland since the start of the epidemic, with 36948 controls matched for age, sex and primary care practice. Results -- Severe COVID-19 was strongly associated with the number of non-cardiovascular drug classes dispensed. This association was strongest in those not resident in care homes, in whom the rate ratio (95% CI) associated with dispensing of 12 or more drug classes versus none was 10.8 (8.7, 13.2), and was not accounted for by treatment of conditions designated as conferring increased risk. Of 17 drug classes postulated at the start of the epidemic to be "medications compromising COVID", all were associated with increased risk of severe COVID-19. The largest effect was for antipsychotic agents: rate ratio 4.14 (3.39, 5.07). Other drug classes with large effects included proton pump inhibitors (rate rato 2.19 (1.70, 2.80) for >= 2 defined daily doses/day), opioids (3.62 (2.65, 4.94) for >= 50 mg morphine equivalent/day) and gabapentinoids. These associations persisted after adjusting for covariates, and were stronger with recent than with non-recent exposure. Conclusions -- Severe COVID-19 is associated with polypharmacy and with drugs that cause sedation, respiratory depression or dyskinesia, have anticholinergic effects or affect the gastrointestinal system. These associations are not easily explained by co-morbidity. Although the evidence for causality is not conclusive, these results support existing guidance on reducing overprescribing of these drug classes and limiting inappropriate polypharmacy as a potential means of reducing COVID-19 risk. Registration -- ENCEPP number EUPAS35558

Background: The objectives of this study were to identify risk factors for severe COVID-19 and to lay the basis for risk stratification based on demographic data and health records. Methods: The design was a matched case-control study. Severe cases were all those with a positive nucleic acid test for SARS-CoV-2 in the national database who had entered a critical care unit or died within 28 days of the first positive test. Seven controls per case matched for sex, age and primary care practice were selected from the population register. All diagnostic codes from the past five years of hospitalisation records and all drug codes from prescriptions dispensed during the past nine months were extracted. Rate ratios for severe COVID-19 were estimated by conditional logistic regression. Findings: There were 2755 severe cases. In a logistic regression using the age-sex distribution of the national population, the odds ratios for severe disease were 2.4 for a 10-year increase in age and 1.81 for male sex. In the case-control analysis, the strongest risk factor was residence in a care home, with rate ratio (95% CI) 16.2 (13.9, 18.8). Univariate rate ratios (95% CIs) for conditions listed by public health agencies as conferring high risk were 4.26 (2.90, 6.24) for Type 1 diabetes, 1.83 (1.65, 2.02) for Type 2 diabetes, 1.63 (1.47, 1.81) for ischemic heart disease, 2.51 (2.29, 2.75) for other heart disease, 2.03 (1.85, 2.22) for chronic lower respiratory tract disease, 6.0 (4.4, 8.3) for chronic kidney disease, 4.79 (4.28, 5.35) for neurological disease, 4.82 (3.23, 7.20) for chronic liver disease and 2.88 (1.94, 4.29) for immune deficiency or suppression. 74% of cases and 48% of controls had at least one listed condition (49% of cases and 8% of controls under age 40). Severe disease was associated with encashment of at least one prescription in the past nine months and with at least one hospital admission in the past five years [rate ratios 3.89 (3.15, 4.80)] and 3.10 (2.79, 3.43) respectively] even after adjusting for the listed conditions. In those without listed conditions significant associations with severe disease were seen across many hospital diagnoses and drug categories. Age and sex provided 2 bits of information for discrimination. A model based on demographic variables, listed conditions, hospital diagnoses and prescriptions provided an additional 1.07 bits (C-statistic 0.805). Conclusions: Along with older age and male sex, severe COVID-19 is strongly associated with past medical history across all age groups. Many comorbidities beyond the risk conditions designated by public health agencies contribute to this. A risk classifier that uses all the information available in health records, rather than only a limited set of conditions, will more accurately discriminate between low-risk and high-risk individuals who may require shielding until the epidemic is over.

Objective To determine the risk of hospital admission with covid-19 and severe covid-19 among teachers and their household members, overall and compared with healthcare workers and adults of working age in the general population. Design Population based nested case-control study. Setting Scotland, March 2020 to July 2021, during defined periods of school closures and full openings in response to covid-19. Participants All cases of covid-19 in adults aged 21 to 65 (n=132 420) and a random sample of controls matched on age, sex, and general practice (n=1 306 566). Adults were identified as actively teaching in a Scottish school by the General Teaching Council for Scotland, and their household members were identified through the unique property reference number. The comparator groups were adults identified as healthcare workers in Scotland, their household members, and the remaining general population of working age. Main outcome measures The primary outcome was hospital admission with covid-19, defined as having a positive test result for SARS-CoV-2 during hospital admission, being admitted to hospital within 28 days of a positive test result, or receiving a diagnosis of covid-19 on discharge from hospital. Severe covid-19 was defined as being admitted to intensive care or dying within 28 days of a positive test result or assigned covid-19 as a cause of death. Results Most teachers were young (mean age 42), were women (80%), and had no comorbidities (84%). The risk (cumulative incidence) of hospital admission with covid-19 was <1% for all adults of working age in the general population. Over the study period, in conditional logistic regression models adjusted for age, sex, general practice, race/ethnicity, deprivation, number of comorbidities, and number of adults in the household, teachers showed a lower risk of hospital admission with covid-19 (rate ratio 0.77, 95% confidence interval 0.64 to 0.92) and of severe covid-19 (0.56, 0.33 to 0.97) than the general population. In the first period when schools in Scotland reopened, in autumn 2020, the rate ratio for hospital admission in teachers was 1.20 (0.89 to 1.61) and for severe covid-19 was 0.45 (0.13 to 1.55). The corresponding findings for household members of teachers were 0.91 (0.67 to 1.23) and 0.73 (0.37 to 1.44), and for patient facing healthcare workers were 2.08 (1.73 to 2.50) and 2.26 (1.43 to 3.59). Similar risks were seen for teachers in the second period, when schools reopened in summer 2021. These values were higher than those seen in spring/summer 2020, when schools were mostly closed. Conclusion Compared with adults of working age who are otherwise similar, teachers and their household members were not found to be at increased risk of hospital admission with covid-19 and were found to be at lower risk of severe covid-19. These findings should reassure those who are engaged in face-to-face teaching.

Background To investigate the association of primary acute cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT) with COVID-19 vaccination through complete ascertainment of all diagnosed CVT in the population of Scotland. Methods Case-crossover study comparing cases of CVT recently exposed to vaccination (1–14 days after vaccination) with cases less recently exposed. Cases in Scotland from 1 December 2020 were ascertained through neuroimaging studies up to 17 May 2021 and diagnostic coding of hospital discharges up to 28 April 2021, linked to national vaccination records. The main outcome measure was primary acute CVT. Results Of 50 primary acute CVT cases, 29 were ascertained only from neuroimaging studies, 2 were ascertained only from hospital discharges, and 19 were ascertained from both sources. Of these 50 cases, 14 had received the Astra-Zeneca ChAdOx1 vaccine and 3 the Pfizer BNT162b2 vaccine. The incidence of CVT per million doses in the first 14 days after vaccination was 2.2 (95% credible interval 0.9 to 4.1) for ChAdOx1 and 1 (95% credible interval 0.1 to 2.9) for BNT162b2. The rate ratio for CVT associated with exposure to ChAdOx1 in the first 14 days compared with exposure 15-84 days after vaccination was 3.2 (95% credible interval 1.1 to 9.5). Conclusions These findings support a causal association between CVT and the AstraZeneca vaccine. The absolute risk of post-vaccination CVT in this population-wide study in Scotland was lower than has been reported for populations in Scandinavia and Germany; the explanation for this is not clear.