The avian middle ear differs from that of mammalians and contains a tympanic membrane, one ossicle (bony columella and cartilaginous extra-columella), some ligaments and one muscle. The rim of the eardrum (closing the middle ear cavity) is connected to the neurocranium and, by means of a broad ligament, to the otic process of the quadrate. Due to the limited number of components in the avian middle ear, the possibilities of attenuating the conduction of sound seem to be limited to activity of the stapedius muscle. We investigate to what extent craniokinesis may impact the components of the middle ear because of the connection of the eardrum to the movable quadrate. The quadrate is a part of the beak suspension and plays an important role in craniokinesis. Micro-computed tomography was used to visualize morphology and the effect of craniokinesis on the middle ear in the domestic chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus). Both hens and roosters are considered because of their difference in vocalization capacity. It is hypothesized that effects, if present, of craniokinesis on the middle ear will be greater in roosters because of their louder vocalization. Maximal lower jaw depression was comparable for hens and roosters (respectively 34.1 ± 2.6° and 32.7 ± 2.5°). There is no overlap in ranges of maximal upper jaw elevation between the sexes (respectively 12.7 ± 2.5° and 18.5 ± 3.8°). Frontal rotation about the transversal quadrato-squamosal, and inward rotation about the squamosal-mandibular axes of the quadrate were both considered to be greater in roosters (respectively 15.4 ± 2.8° and 11.1 ± 2.5°). These quadrate rotations did not affect the columellar position or orientation. In hens, an influence of the quadrate movements on the shape of the eardrum could not be detected either; however, craniokinesis caused slight stretching of the eardrum towards the caudal rim of the otic process of the quadrate. In roosters, an inward displacement of the conical tip of the tympanic membrane of 0.378 ± 0.21 mm, as a result of craniokinesis, was observed. This is linked to a flattening and slackening of the eardrum. These changes most likely go along with a deformation of the extra-columella. Generally, in birds, larger beak opening is related to the intensity of vocalization. The coupling between larger maximal upper jaw lifting in roosters and the slackening of the eardrum suggest the presence of a passive sound attenuation mechanism during self-vocalization.

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In X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) each voxel of the reconstructed image contains a calculated grey value which represents the linear attenuation coefficient for the materials in that voxel. Conventional laboratory based CT scanners use polychromatic X-ray sources and integrating detectors with an energy dependent efficiency. Consequently the reconstructed attenuation coefficients will depend on the spectrum of the source and the spectral sensitivity of the detector. Beam hardening will alter the spectrum significantly as the beam propagates through the sample. Therefore, sample composition and shape will affect the reconstructed attenuation coefficients as well. A polychromatic projection simulator has been developed at the "Centre for X-ray Tomography" of the Ghent University (UGCT) which takes into account the aforementioned variables, allowing for complete and realistic simulations of CT scans for a wide range of geometrical setups. Monte Carlo simulations of the X-ray tubes and detectors were performed to model their spectral behaviour. In this paper, the implementation and features of the program are discussed. Simulated and real CT scans are compared to demonstrate the quantitative correctness of the simulations. Experiments performed at two different UGCT scanners yield a maximum deviation of 3.9% and 6.5% respectively, between the measured and simulated reconstructed attenuation coefficients.

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An alternative acquisition geometry for X-ray computed tomography (CT) is investigated as a solution to in-line non-destructive quality inspection in a high throughput production environment. The sample movement during acquisition combines a translation, typically horizontal, along one axis and a rotation about a second axis perpendicular to the first, and is shown to produce theoretically exact CT reconstructions. A methodology is presented to evaluate the design of a conveyor belt implementation for this acquisition scheme, investigating the trade-off between reconstruction quality and throughput. The methodology was applied in both a simulated version and an experimental mock-up of the conveyor belt implementation for a specific food sample, but can be extrapolated to any type of sample. Throughput, for the food sample, is predicted to be in a practically usable range of up to 5 samples per second. As a general conclusion, higher throughput can be reached with larger inspection stations while maintaining image quality.

The presence of two phenotypes in a single species is a widespread phenomenon, also observed in European eel (Anguilla anguilla). This dimorphism has been related to dietary differences in the subadult elver and yellow eel stages, with broad-heads generally feeding on harder and/or larger-bodied prey items than narrow-heads. Nevertheless, both broad- and narrow-headed phenotypes can already be found among glass eels, the stage preceding the elver eel stage. As these glass eels are considered nonfeeding, we investigate here to what degree the observed variation in head width is reflected in variation in the musculoskeletal feeding system, as well as whether this reflects the same variation observed in the older, dimorphic yellow eels. Additionally, we investigate whether musculoskeletal differences between broad- and narrow-headed glass eels have implications on their feeding performance and could thus impact prey preference when eels start feeding. Therefore, we compared the cranial musculoskeletal system of five broad- and narrow-headed glass eels using 3D-reconstructions and simulated the glass eel's bite force using the data of the muscle reconstructions. We found that the variation in the musculoskeletal system of glass eels indeed reflects that of the yellow eels. Broader heads were related to larger jaw muscles, responsible for mouth closure. Accordingly, broad-heads could generate higher bite forces than narrow-headed glass eels. In addition, broader heads were associated with higher coronoid processes and shorter hyomandibulae, beneficial for dealing with higher mechanical loadings and consequently, harder prey. We, thus, show that head width variation in glass eels is related to musculoskeletal differences which, in turn, can affect feeding performance. As such, differences in prey preference can already take place the moment the eels start feeding, potentially leading to the dimorphism observed in the elver and yellow eel stage.

Extrinsic self-healing materials are materials with built-in (micro-) capsules or vessels, which upon fracturing release healing agents in order to recover the material's physical and mechanical properties. In order to better understand and engineer these materials, a thorough characterization of the materials' microstructural behaviour is essential and often overlooked. In this context, we illustrate how micro-computed tomography (µCT) can be used to investigate the distribution and debonding of (micro-) capsules in their native state and in three dimensions in a polymer system with self-healing properties. Furthermore, we show how in-situ µCT experiments in a self-healing polymer and a selfhealing concrete system can elucidate the breakage and leakage behaviour of (micro-) capsules at the micrometre scale. While challenges related to image resolution and contrast complicate the characterization in specific cases, non-destructive 3D imaging with µCT contributes to the understanding of the link between the microstructure and the self-healing behaviour of these complex materials.