DJ-1, a 20.7 kDa protein, is overexpressed in people who have bladder cancer (BC). Its elevated concentration in urine allows it to serve as a marker for BC. However, no biosensor for the detection of DJ-1 has been demonstrated. Here, we describe a virus bioresistor (VBR) capable of detecting DJ-1 in urine at a concentration of 10 pM in 1 min. The VBR consists of a pair of millimeter-scale gold electrodes that measure the electrical impedance of an ultrathin (≈ 150–200 nm), two-layer polymeric channel. The top layer of this channel (90–105 nm in thickness) consists of an electrodeposited virus-PEDOT (PEDOT is poly­(3,4-ethylene­dioxythiophene)) composite containing embedded M13 virus particles that are engineered to recognize and bind to the target protein of interest, DJ-1. The bottom layer consists of spin-coated PEDOT–PSS (poly­(styrenesulfonate)). Together, these two layers constitute a current divider. We demonstrate here that reducing the thickness of the bottom PEDOT–PSS layer increases its resistance and concentrates the resistance drop of the channel in the top virus-PEDOT layer, thereby increasing the sensitivity of the VBR and enabling the detection of DJ-1. Large signal amplitudes coupled with the inherent simplicity of the VBR sensor design result in high signal-to-noise (S/N > 100) and excellent sensor-to-sensor reproducibility characterized by coefficients of variation in the range of 3–7% across the DJ-1 binding curve down to a concentration of 30 pM, near the 10 pM limit of detection (LOD), encompassing four orders of magnitude in concentration.

The virus bioresistor (VBR) is a chemiresistor that directly transfers information from virus particles to an electrical circuit. Specifically, the VBR enables the label-free detection of a target protein that is recognized and bound by filamentous M13 virus particles, each with dimensions of 6 nm ( w) × 1 μm ( l), entrained in an ultrathin (∼250 nm) composite virus-polymer resistor. Signal produced by the specific binding of virus to target molecules is monitored using the electrical impedance of the VBR: The VBR presents a complex impedance that is modeled by an equivalent circuit containing just three circuit elements: a solution resistance ( R), a channel resistance ( R), and an interfacial capacitance ( C). The value of R, measured across 5 orders of magnitude in frequency, is increased by the specific recognition and binding of a target protein to the virus particles in the resistor, producing a signal Δ R. The VBR concept is demonstrated using a model system in which human serum albumin (HSA, 66 kDa) is detected in a phosphate buffer solution. The VBR cleanly discriminates between a change in the electrical resistance of the buffer, measured by R, and selective binding of HSA to virus particles, measured by R. The Δ R induced by HSA binding is as high as 200 Ω, contributing to low sensor-to-sensor coefficients-of-variation (<15%) across the entire calibration curve for HSA from 7.5 nM to 900 nM. The response time for the VBR is 3-30 s.

The label-free detection of human serum albumin (HSA) in aqueous buffer is demonstrated using a simple, monolithic, two-electrode electrochemical biosensor. In this device, both millimeter-scale electrodes are coated with a thin layer of a composite containing M13 virus particles and the electronically conductive polymer poly(3,4 ethylenedioxy thiophene) or PEDOT. These virus particles, engineered to selectively bind HSA, serve as receptors in this biosensor. The resistance component of the electrical impedance, Zre, measured between these two electrodes provides electrical transduction of HSA binding to the virus-PEDOT film. The analysis of sample volumes as small as 50 µL is made possible using a microfluidic cell. Upon exposure to HSA, virus-PEDOT films show a prompt increase in Zre within 5 s and a stable Zre signal within 15 min. HSA concentrations in the range from 100 nM to 5 µM are detectable. Sensor-to-sensor reproducibility of the HSA measurement is characterized by a coefficient-of-variance (COV) ranging from 2–8% across this entire concentration range. In addition, virus-PEDOT sensors successfully detected HSA in synthetic urine solutions.

Isomeric triazines can be tuned to exhibit unique reaction profiles with biocompatible strained alkenes and alkynes.