Approximate entropy (ApEn) and sample entropy (SampEn) are mathematical algorithms created to measure the repeatability or predictability within a time series. Both algorithms are extremely sensitive to their input parameters: m (length of the data segment being compared), r (similarity criterion), and N (length of data). There is no established consensus on parameter selection in short data sets, especially for biological data. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to examine the robustness of these two entropy algorithms by exploring the effect of changing parameter values on short data sets. Data with known theoretical entropy qualities as well as experimental data from both healthy young and older adults was utilized. Our results demonstrate that both ApEn and SampEn are extremely sensitive to parameter choices, especially for very short data sets, N ≤ 200. We suggest using N larger than 200, an m of 2 and examine several r values before selecting your parameters. Extreme caution should be used when choosing parameters for experimental studies with both algorithms. Based on our current findings, it appears that SampEn is more reliable for short data sets. SampEn was less sensitive to changes in data length and demonstrated fewer problems with relative consistency.

Gait variability in the context of a deterministic dynamical system may be quantified using nonlinear time series analyses that characterize the complexity of the system. Pathological gait exhibits altered gait variability. It can be either too periodic and predictable, or too random and disordered, as is the case with aging. While gait therapies often focus on restoration of linear measures such as gait speed or stride length, we propose that the goal of gait therapy should be to restore optimal gait variability, which exhibits chaotic fluctuations and is the balance between predictability and complexity. In this context, our purpose was to investigate how listening to different auditory stimuli affects gait variability. Twenty-seven young and 27 elderly subjects walked on a treadmill for 5 min while listening to white noise, a chaotic rhythm, a metronome, and with no auditory stimulus. Stride length, step width, and stride intervals were calculated for all conditions. Detrended Fluctuation Analysis was then performed on these time series. A quadratic trend analysis determined that an idealized inverted-U shape described the relationship between gait variability and the structure of the auditory stimuli for the elderly group, but not for the young group. This proof-of-concept study shows that the gait of older adults may be manipulated using auditory stimuli. Future work will investigate which structures of auditory stimuli lead to improvements in functional status in older adults.

ApEn results revealed that the natural fluctuations present during gait in the stride length and step width time series are more regular and repeatable in patients with MS. These changes implied that patients with MS may exhibit reduced capacity to adapt and respond to perturbations during gait.

BACKGROUND Sea travel leads to well-known changes in gait, but these effects have not been evaluated using quantitative data obtained through controlled experiments. We obtained quantitative data on step-timing patterns as experienced maritime crewmembers walked on a ship at sea. METHODS Using a within-subjects design, crewmembers walked back and forth along straight line paths (11 m long) that were parallel with the ship’s long (i.e., fore-aft) and short (i.e., athwart) axes. Using contact switches attached to the feet, we measured temporal parameters of gait, including stride time, the variability of stride time, and the coefficient of variation. We also evaluated the temporal dynamics of stride times using detrended fluctuation analysis. RESULTS The variability of stride time differed between walking fore-aft (mean = 0.10 s) and walking athwart (mean = 0.28 s). The coefficient of variation also differed between walking fore-aft (mean = 11%) and walking athwart (mean = 43%). CONCLUSIONS We obtained direct evidence that ship motions in roll and pitch differentially affect the timing of stepping patterns in human gait. This novel finding motivates new research on quantitative parameters of gait at sea.