Ego identity development in the areas of occupational choice, religion, and political ideology was studied using Marcia's categorization system. The results indicated a significant increase in the frequency of the identity achiever status for occupational choice and corresponding decreases in the frequency of the moratorium and identity diffusion statuses. A significant decrease in the frequency of foreclosures on religion was also found. In those instances where students underwent an identity crisis, the probability of resolving it successfully was very high. High scores on the Cultural Sophistication scale of the College Student Questionnaire-Part 1 were found to be associated with presence in the identity achievement status. For students not in the achiever status as freshmen, an interest in various literary and art forms was predictive of becoming an achiever while in college.
In each of three experiments, four groups of rats were given 35 classical fearconditioning trials in one side of a two-compartment box. They were then allowed to jump a hurdle to the adjacent box and escape the fear-eliciting stimuli. Reward magnitude (fear reduction) during hurdle jumping was for two groups either large or small throughout, while for two groups it was increased or decreased after some training. Manipulated and nonmanipulated reward varied between experiments. Preshift performance was better with large than with small reward. Positive contrast effects were not found, but a negative contrast effect was obtained in Experiment 3. The concepts of incentive motivation and frustration, used to account for performance in appetitively motivated learning tasks, were applied to the present findings.
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