Need for cognition in contemporary literature refers to an individual's tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive endeavors. Individual differences in need for cognition have been the focus of investigation in over 100 empirical studies. This literature is reviewed, covering the theory and history of this variable, measures of interindividual variations in it, and empirical relationships between it and personality variables, as well as individuals' tendencies to seek andengage in effortful cognitive activity and enjoy cognitively effortful circumstances. The article cotacludes with discussions of an elaborated theory of the variable, including antecedent conditions; interindividual variations in it related to the manner information is acquired or processed to guide perceptions, judgments, and behavior; and the relationship between it and the 5-factor model of personality structure. Speaker A: "If v,e don't accomplish reform, health care costs will soar, ballooning our deficits. But it doesn't seem like any of these reform plans cut costs convincingly. As soon as any plan seems to cut costs, some lobby group clobbers it with scare TV ads. We seem incapable as a society of coherently discussing the substance of our economy. The actual numbers are so big, so complex... ?' Speaker B: "Get real!" Speaker A: "I am! I'm talking about reality! I'm talking about substance!" Speaker B: "Substance isn't real! Polls are real! Election results are real! Who's up. Who's down. That's what's real! Substance is incomprehensible! The purpose of substance is to provide statistical factoids to politicians to toss at one another in partisan battles. Whichever one sounds best wins. And that's what's real!" (Stamaty, 1994, p. 17) Psychology, with its emphasis on information processing, is replete with theories based on the notion that people, if not commonly enjoying, are at least commonly engaging in active information search and effortful problem solving as they steer their course through their environment (e.g., Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Whitley & Frieze, 1985). Nearly equally prevalent are psychological theories based on the notion that information acquisition, problem solving, and judgments result much of the time from automatic or preattentive processes or from only cursory attention to the substantive details of the informative environment (e.g.
Diastolic dysfunction is a common pathology occurring in about one third of patients affected by heart failure. This condition is not associated with a marked decrease in cardiac output or systemic pressure and therefore is more difficult to diagnose than its systolic counterpart. Compromised relaxation or increased stiffness of the left ventricle with or without mitral valve stenosis induces an increase in the upstream pulmonary pressures, and classified as secondary or group II (2018 Nice classification) pulmonary hypertension. This may result in an increase in the right ventricular afterload leading to right ventricular failure. Elevated pulmonary pressures are therefore an important clinical indicator of diastolic heart failure (sometimes referred to as "heart failure with preserved ejection fraction"), showing significant correlation with associated mortality. Accurate measurements of this quantity, however, are typically obtained through invasive catheterization, and after the onset of symptoms. In this study, we use the hemodynamic consistency of a differential-algebraic circulation model to predict pulmonary pressures in adult patients from other, possibly non-invasive, clinical data. We investigate several aspects of the problem, including the well posedness of a modeling approach for this type of disease, identifiability of its parameters, to the accuracy of the predicted pulmonary pressures. We also find that a classifier using the assimilated model parameters as features is free from the problem of missing data and is able to detect pulmonary hypertension with sufficiently high accuracy. For a cohort of 82 patients suffering from various degrees of heart failure severity we show that systolic, diastolic and wedge pulmonary pressures can be estimated on average within 8, 6 and 6 mmHg, respectively. We also show that, in general, increased data availability leads to improved predictions.
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