Are assertive and aggressive behaviors distinguishable from each other across different cultures? A limited amount of research, reviewed here, indicates that they are. It seems that, across cultures, assertive and aggresive behaviors are identifiable as different constructs and that they vary independently from each other. Other variables that mediate differences on assertiveness between cultures such as individualism versus collectivism and masculinity versus femininity are considered. Finally, recommendations regarding research methodology for the study of assertive behaviors across cultures are presented.
The counseling process is a complex activity. Among the factors that contribute to this complexity are client expectations and cultural influences. These factors have received increased attention over the past few years.The main emphasis of this review will be on client expectations in a cultural and cross-cultural context. Culture is considered to be '...the configuration of learned behavior and results of behavior whose components and elements are shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society' (Linton, 1945: 32). A cross-cultural counseling situation is one in which the learned set of behaviors of the counselor is different from that of the client. Obviously, any two leamed sets of behavior potentially may differ from each other to a greater, lesser, or moderate degree. It might be hypothesized that the greater the difference between the counselor and client learned behavior sets, the lesser the chance of counseling success.As stated previously, the focus of this review is upon client expectations about counseling. Many of the articles reviewed deal with client expectations directly. A variable of client expectancy is client preference. To whom does the client prefer to talk, a woman or a man? Client preference literature will also be reviewed, and it will be considered along with the expectancy literature.The literature reviewed consists of both data based and non-data based presentations. The present understanding of this topic is still at a formative stage, and it is important to consider both empirical and apriori approaches. In some cases, studies have been executed with data collection and analysis; and in other cases, individuals have written of their personal experiences.
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