This regional synthesis addresses a major gap in knowledge about the effects of COVID-19 on agriculture and food across Asia • Key informants from 20 Asian countries assessed early direct and indirect effects on each of four major regional farming and food systems • The analysis showed Asian farming and food systems were moderately resilient to the pandemic, especially the hill mixed system • System resilience, food and labour markets, and farm and food chain economic benefits are key priorities for recovery policies and programmes • This study highlights COVID-19 effects and informs recovery policies and precautionary strategies against future pandemics in Asia and globally

Malnutrition among children and women continues to be one of the major problems in Sri Lanka despite the food and nutritional intervention programs implemented since independence. The objectives of this study were to find out whether there is calorie malnutrition among the urban poor in Kandy and to find out the determinants of the intra-household allocation of calories. Calorie adequacy ratios of fathers, mothers and children were compared to find out whether there is calorie malnutrition among family members. Relative calorie allocation of individuals was regressed with socioeconomic variables to find the determinants of the intra-household calorie allocation. Primary data collected using a structured questionnaire from sixty households in the lower income group in urban Kandy was used for the analysis. Results show that there was a significant difference among calorie adequacy ratios of fathers, mothers and children. Fathers have the highest and children have the lowest mean calorie adequacy ratios. Regression results indicate that income of mother and family size have significant positive and negative impacts respectively on mother's relative calorie allocation. Results also show that there was an age and gender biased calorie allocation within the family. Income of mother had a negative effect on children's calorie allocation. Though expansion in employment opportunities could alleviate malnutrition among women, it may aggravate malnutrition among children.

This study examines the pattern of household energy consumption among urban, rural and estate sectors, over time and across income groups in Sri Lanka. The 'energy ladder' hypothesis was tested and Engle functions were estimated using Consumer Finances and Socio Economic Survey data from 1978/79 to 2003/04. Results reveal that the energy ladder hypothesis holds for Sri Lanka and the country as a whole is moving towards modern fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity. The urban sector proceeds much faster than the rural sector. Engle functions estimated for individual fuels and for different sectors reveal that the budget elasticity values were negative for firewood and kerosene, in the urban and estate sectors, indicating that they are inferior goods. LPG and electricity had positive budget elasticities indicating that they are normal goods. Budget elasticities estimated for the estate sector were insignificant eliciting that factors other than income influence the fuel consumption decisions.

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