Hypoxia is a common cause of cell death and is implicated in many disease processes including stroke and chronic degenerative disorders. In response to hypoxia, cells express a variety of genes, which allow adaptation to altered metabolic demands, decreased oxygen demands, and the removal of irreversibly damaged cells. Using polymerase chain reaction-based suppression subtractive hybridization to find genes that are differentially expressed in hypoxia, we identified the BH3-only Bcl-2 family protein Noxa. Noxa is a candidate molecule mediating p53-induced apoptosis. We show that Noxa promoter responds directly to hypoxia via hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1 ␣ . Suppression of Noxa expression by antisense oligonucleotides rescued cells from hypoxia-induced cell death and decreased infarction volumes in an animal model of ischemia. Further, we show that reactive oxygen species and resultant cytochrome c release participate in Noxa-mediated hypoxic cell death. Altogether, our results show that Noxa is induced by HIF-1 ␣ and mediates hypoxic cell death.

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1␣ (HIF-1␣) controls the cellular responses to hypoxia, activating transcription of a range of genes involved in adaptive processes such as increasing glycolysis and promoting angiogenesis. However, paradoxically, HIF-1␣ also participates in hypoxic cell death. Several gene products, such as BNip3, RTP801, and Noxa, were identified as HIF-1␣-responsive proapoptotic proteins, but the complicated hypoxic cell death pathways could not be completely explained by the few known genes. Moreover, molecules linking the proapoptotic signals of HIF-1␣ directly to mitochondrial permeability transition are missing. In this work, we report the identification of an HIF-1␣-responsive proapoptotic molecule, HGTD-P. Its expression was directly regulated by HIF-1␣ through a hypoxia-responsive element on the HGTD-P promoter region. When overexpressed, HGTD-P was localized to mitochondria and facilitated apoptotic cell death via typical mitochondrial apoptotic cascades, including permeability transition, cytochrome c release, and caspase 9 activation. In the process of permeability transition induction, the death-inducing domain of HGTD-P physically interacted with the voltage-dependent anion channel. In addition, suppression of HGTD-P expression by small interfering RNA or antisense oligonucleotides protected against hypoxic cell death. Taken together, our data indicate that HGTD-P is a new HIF-1␣-responsive proapoptotic molecule that activates mitochondrial apoptotic cascades.Hypoxia is the most common cellular stress, with important pathological implications in many disease processes, including cerebral ischemia and myocardial infarction (15). Cells in hypoxia express a variety of adaptive or death gene products to satisfy altered metabolic demands or to remove irreversibly damaged cells (4). Adaptive genes allow increased O 2 delivery to the peripheral tissues through vasodilation and angiogenesis, facilitate ATP synthesis through the glycolytic pathway, or reduce proliferative rates (12,29,30). In addition, antiapoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins prevent hypoxic cell death by stabilization of mitochondria or inhibition of caspase activation (28). However, in the case of severe hypoxic damage beyond the cell's adaptive capability, death-promoting genes are expressed, resulting in necrosis or apoptosis (4).Hypoxia-inducible factor 1␣ (HIF-1␣) is known to be a master transactivator in hypoxia, which is induced, stabilized, and translocated to the nucleus to regulate the transcription of a variety of genes involved in adaptive responses such as increased O 2 delivery and angiogenesis (5, 31). While HIF-1␣ participates largely in adaptive responses to hypoxia, paradoxically it also mediates hypoxic cell death via the interaction with p53 or modulation of its effector expression (3, 14, 17). Although several proapoptotic genes induced by HIF-1␣ have been reported (3, 17, 37), the hypoxic cell death pathway might be too complicated to be explained by the few known genes.To better understand the molecular mechanism...

Mitochondria are known to play a fundamental role in apoptosis by releasing apoptogenic molecules such as cytochrome c into the cytoplasm, thereby sequentially activating initiator caspase-9. However, the mechanisms of cytochrome c release or caspase-9 activation in response to hypoxia are unclear. In this report, we show that caspase-9 is activated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) without involvement of cytochrome c release in hypoxic injury. In addition, activated caspase-9 induces permeability transition (PT)-independent cytochrome c release, suggesting that caspase-9 may disrupt mitochondrial di¡usion limit of cytochrome c and serve to amplify further release of cytochrome c. ß

BackgroundThe rapid growth of tumor parenchyma leads to chronic hypoxia that can result in the selection of cancer cells with a more aggressive behavior and death-resistant potential to survive and proliferate. Thus, identifying the key molecules and molecular mechanisms responsible for the phenotypic changes associated with chronic hypoxia has valuable implications for the development of a therapeutic modality. The aim of this study was to identify the molecular basis of the phenotypic changes triggered by chronic repeated hypoxia.MethodsHypoxia-resistant T98G (HRT98G) cells were selected by repeated exposure to hypoxia and reoxygenation. Cell death rate was determined by the trypan blue exclusion method and protein expression levels were examined by western blot analysis. The invasive phenotype of the tumor cells was determined by the Matrigel invasion assay. Immunohistochemistry was performed to analyze the expression of proteins in the brain tumor samples. The Student T-test and Pearson Chi-Square test was used for statistical analyses.ResultsWe demonstrate that chronic repeated hypoxic exposures cause T98G cells to survive low oxygen tension. As compared with parent cells, hypoxia-selected T98G cells not only express higher levels of anti-apoptotic proteins such as Bcl-2, Bcl-XL, and phosphorylated ERK, but they also have a more invasive potential in Matrigel invasion chambers. Activation or suppression of ERK pathways with a specific activator or inhibitor, respectively, indicates that ERK is a key molecule responsible for death resistance under hypoxic conditions and a more invasive phenotype. Finally, we show that the activation of ERK is more prominent in malignant glioblastomas exposed to hypoxia than in low grade astrocytic glial tumors.ConclusionOur study suggests that activation of ERK plays a pivotal role in death resistance under chronic hypoxia and phenotypic changes related to the invasive phenotype of HRT98G cells compared to parent cells.

The cellular DNA damage response (DDR) ensures genomic stability and protects against genotoxic stresses. Conversely, defects in the DDR contribute to genome instability, with the resulting accumulated genetic changes capable of inducing neoplastic transformation. Thus, DDR is central to both the mechanism of oncogenesis and cancer therapy. Specifically, DDR is accomplished via a complicated meshwork of evolutionary conserved proteins, including ATM, ATR, and phospho-H2AX (γH2AX). GLTSCR2 is a nucleolar protein believed to function as a tumor suppressor, although its exact molecular mechanisms have yet to be fully elucidated. As a result of our research pertaining to the role of GLTSCR2 in tumor suppression, we have determined that GLTSCR2 is involved in DDR. Under genotoxic conditions, such as cellular exposure to UV radiation or radiomimetic drugs, GLTSCR2 expression increased and later mobilized to the nucleoplasm. Moreover, GLTSCR2 knockdown attenuated both the presence of phospho-H2AX at the nuclear foci and the phosphorylation of multiple DDR proteins, including ATM, ATR, Chk2, Chk1, and H2AX. In addition, the decreased expression of GLTSCR2 sensitized cells to DNA damage, delayed DNA repair, and abolished G2/M checkpoint activation. Our observations indicate that GLTSCR2 is a key component of DDR and GLTSCR2 seems to act as a tumor suppressor by participating in optimal DDR because DNA damage is a frequent and crucial event in oncogenesis.

a b s t r a c tThe Bcl-2 family proteins plays a central role in apoptosis. The pro-or anti-apoptotic activities of Bcl-2 family are dependent on the Bcl-2 homology (BH) regions. Bcl-rambo, a new pro-apoptotic member, is unusual in that its pro-apoptotic activity is independent of its BH domains. However, the mechanism underlying Bcl-rambo-induced apoptosis is largely unknown. Mitochondrial localization is indispensable for the pro-apoptotic function of Bcl-rambo. Bcl-rambo interacts physically with the adenine nucleotide translocator (ANT), suppresses the ADT/ATP-dependent translocation activity of ANT. Collectively, our data indicate Bcl-rambo is a pro-apoptotic member of the Bcl-2 family, induces the permeability transition via interaction with ANT. Structured summary of protein interactions:Bcl-Rambo and HSP60 colocalize by fluorescence microscopy (View interaction) Bcl-rambo binds to ANT1 by pull down (View interaction)

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is a pleiotropic cytokine involved in immune modulation, inflammatory reactions, and target cell death in many pathologic conditions. The cell death pathways triggered by TNF include the caspase-8/Bid-dependent apoptotic pathway and the caspase-independent necrosis pathway (necroptosis). While the signaling pathways activated after binding of TNF to the TNF receptor (TNFR) and subsequent insertion of Bid/Bax/Bik into the outer mitochondrial membrane are relatively well known, other cell death pathways and the participating signaling molecules remain to be clarified. BNip3 is a pro-death protein and a member of the BH3-only Bcl-2 family. When ectopically overexpressed or induced by hypoxia, BNip3 induces various types of cell death via mitochondrial or non-mitochondrial death cascades. In this study using A549 alveolar epithelial cells of the lung, we show that BNip3 is transcriptionally and translationally upregulated by TNF, and its expression level determines the sensitivity to necroptosis induced by TNF. However, BNip3 does not appear to be involved in caspase-8/Bid-dependent apoptotic cell death in these alveolar lung cells. Finally, we show that the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is essential for mitochondrial insertion of BNip3, which is an important step in BNip3-induced mitochondrial catastrophe. Our results indicate that BNip3 is a candidate therapeutic target in pathologic conditions in which TNF causes tissue damage.

a b s t r a c tAdrenomedullin (ADM) functions as a survival factor against hypoxic cell death. However, molecular mechanisms underlying the cell survival pathway remain largely unknown. In this report, we showed that ADM suppressed reactive oxygen species (ROS) increase by inhibiting reduction of glutathione (GSH) level in hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) injury, and increased the activities of glutathione peroxidase and reductase. In addition, ADM maintained total and active reduced thioredoxin (Trx) levels against H/R. We also found that ADM blocked nuclear translocation of Trx induced by H/R. The results of the present study show that ADM regulates cellular ROS levels via the GSH and Trx system.