Objectives Approximately 50% of serous epithelial ovarian cancers (EOC) contain molecular defects in homologous recombination (HR) DNA repair pathways. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors (PARPi) have efficacy in HR-deficient, but not HR-proficient, EOC tumors as a single agent. Our goal was to determine whether the histone deacetylase inhibitor, suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA), can sensitize HR-proficient ovarian cancer cells to the PARPi AZD-2281 (olaparib). Methods Ovarian cancer cell lines (SKOV-3, OVCAR-8, NCI/ADR-Res, UWB1.289 BRCA1null and UWB1.289 + BRCA1 wild-type) were treated with saline vehicle, olaparib, SAHA or olaparib/SAHA. Sulforhodamine B (SRB) assessed cytotoxicity and immunofluorescence and Western blot assays assessed markers of apoptosis (cleaved PARP) and DNA damage (pH2AX and RAD51). Drug effects were also tested in SKOV-3 xenografts in Nude mice. Affymetrix microarray experiments were performed in vehicle and SAHA-treated SKOV-3 cells. Results In a microarray analysis, SAHA induced coordinated down-regulation of HR pathway genes, including RAD51 and BRCA1. Nuclear co-expression of RAD51 and pH2AX, a marker of efficient HR repair, was reduced approximately 40% by SAHA treatment alone and combined with olaparib. SAHA combined with olaparib induced apoptosis and pH2AX expression to a greater extent than either drug alone. Olaparib reduced cell viability at increasing concentrations and SAHA enhanced these effects in 4 of 5 cell lines, including BRCA1 null and wild-type cells, in vitro and in SKOV-3 xenografts in vivo. Conclusions These results provide preclinical rationale for targeting DNA damage response pathways by combining small molecule PARPi with HDACi as a mechanism for reducing HR efficiency in ovarian cancer.

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid, AA) depletion during pre-natal and post-natal development can lead to oxidative stress in the developing brains and other organs. Such damage may lead to irreversible effects on later brain function. We studied the relationship between AA deficiency and oxidative stress during development in gulonolactone oxidase (gulo) knockout mice that are unable to synthesize their own ascorbic acid. Heterozygous gulo(+/−) mice can synthesize AA and typically have similar tissue levels to wild-type mice. Gulo(+/−) dams were mated with gulo(+/−) males to provide offspring of each possible genotype. Overall, embryonic day 20 (E20) and post-natal day 1 (P1) pups were protected against oxidative stress by sufficient AA transfer during pregnancy. On post-natal day 10 (P10) AA levels were dramatically lower in liver and cerebellum in gulo (−/−) mice and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were significantly increased. In post-natal day 18 pups (P18) AA levels decreased further in gulo(−/−) mice and oxidative stress was observed in the accompanying elevations in MDA in liver, and F2-isoprostanes in cortex. Further, total glutathione levels were higher in gulo(−/−) mice in cortex, cerebellum and liver, indicating that a compensatory antioxidant system was activated. These data show a direct relationship between AA level and oxidative stress in the gulo(−/−) mice. They reinforce the critical role of ascorbic acid in preventing oxidative stress in the developing brain in animals that, like humans, cannot synthesize their own AA.

BackgroundNuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappaB) signaling is an important link between inflammation and peritoneal carcinomatosis in human ovarian cancer. Our objective was to track NF-kappaB signaling during ovarian cancer progression in a syngeneic mouse model using tumor cells stably expressing an NF-kappaB reporter.MethodsID8 mouse ovarian cancer cells stably expressing an NF-kappaB-dependent GFP/luciferase (NGL) fusion reporter transgene (ID8-NGL) were generated, and injected intra-peritoneally into C57BL/6 mice. NGL reporter activity in tumors was non-invasively monitored by bioluminescence imaging and measured in luciferase assays in harvested tumors. Ascites fluid or peritoneal lavages were analyzed for inflammatory cell and macrophage content, and for mRNA expression of M1 and M2 macrophage markers by quantitative real-time RT-PCR. 2-tailed Mann-Whitney tests were used for measuring differences between groups in in vivo experiments.ResultsIn ID8-NGL cells, responsiveness of the reporter to NF-kappaB activators and inhibitors was confirmed in vitro and in vivo. ID8-NGL tumors in C57BL/6 mice bore histopathological resemblance to human high-grade serous ovarian cancer and exhibited similar peritoneal disease spread. Tumor NF-kappaB activity, measured by the NGL reporter and by western blot of nuclear p65 expression, was markedly elevated at late stages of ovarian cancer progression. In ascites fluid, macrophages were the predominant inflammatory cell population. There were elevated levels of the M2-like pro-tumor macrophage marker, mannose-receptor, during tumor progression, and reduced levels following NF-kappaB inhibition with thymoquinone.ConclusionsOur ID8-NGL reporter syngeneic model is suitable for investigating changes in tumor NF-kappaB activity during ovarian cancer progression, how NF-kappaB activity influences immune cells in the tumor microenvironment, and effects of NF-kappaB-targeted treatments in future studies.

Objective Homologous recombination (HR) proficient ovarian cancers, including CCNE1 (cyclin E)-amplified tumors, are resistant to poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors (PARPi). Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) are effective in overcoming tumor resistance to DNA damaging drugs. Our goal was to determine whether panobinostat, a newly FDA-approved HDACi, can sensitize cyclin E, HR-proficient ovarian cancer cells to the PARPi olaparib. Methods Expression levels of CCNE1 (cyclin E), BRCA1, RAD51 and E2F1 in ovarian tumors and cell lines were extracted from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Broad-Novartis Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia (CCLE). In HR-proficient ovarian cancer cell line models (OVCAR-3, OVCAR-4, SKOV-3, and UWB1.289 + BRCA1 wild-type), cell growth and viability were assessed by sulforhodamine B and xenograft assays. DNA damage and repair (pH2AX and RAD51 co-localization and DRGFP reporter activity) and apoptosis (cleaved PARP and cleaved caspase-3) were assessed by immunofluorescence and Western blot assays. Results TCGA and CCLE data revealed positive correlations (Spearman) between cyclin E E2F1, and E2F1 gene targets related to DNA repair (BRCA1 and RAD51). Panobinostat downregulated cyclin E and HR repair pathway genes, and reduced HR efficiency in cyclin E-amplified OVCAR-3 cells. Further, panobinostat synergized with olaparib in reducing cell growth and viability in HR-proficient cells. Similar co-operative effects were observed in xenografts, and on pharmacodynamic markers of HR repair, DNA damage and apoptosis. Conclusions These results provide preclinical rationale for using HDACi to reduce HR in cyclin E-overexpressing and other types of HR-proficient ovarian cancer as a means of enhancing PARPi activity.

Objective Romidepsin (FK228) was recently approved by the FDA for the treatment of cutaneous and peripheral T cell lymphoma. We have shown in vitro efficacy of FK228 in ovarian cancer. Here, our goal was to evaluate FK228 combined with cisplatin in ovarian cancer in vitro and in vivo. Methods Ovarian cancer cell lines were treated with cisplatin, FK228 or the combination of drugs. Colorimetric assays were used to determine cytotoxicity in vitro. Mice engrafted with 7 × 106 SKOV-3 ovarian cancer cells were treated with cisplatin, FK228 or the combination, and tumor weights and volumes were measured. We assessed molecular markers of proliferation (mib-1), apoptosis (cleaved PARP and cleaved caspase 3) and DNA damage (pH2AX, RAD51 and 53BP1). Results FK228 enhanced the cytotoxic effects of cisplatin in ovarian cells compared to vehicle-treated controls or each drug alone. The combination of FK228 and cisplatin- induced apoptosis and activated aberrant DNA damage responses demonstrated by increased expression of pH2AX, RAD51 and 53BP1. Mice treated with FK228, cisplatin and both drugs reduced tumor weights and volumes. Drug-treated tumors showed decreased mib-1 and increased cleaved-caspase 3 expression levels. The number and intensity of pH2AX stained cells was greatest in tumors exposed to the combination of FK228 and cisplatin. Conclusion FK228 causes DNA damage-induced apoptosis and enhances the anti-tumor effects of cisplatin. The DNA damage mark pH2AX is activated by FK228 and may be a useful pharmacodynamic mark of these effects.

Cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) is implicated in ovarian cancer. However, patterns of COX expression and function have been unclear and controversial. In this report, patterns of COX-1 and COX-2 gene expression were obtained from RNA-seq data through The Cancer Genome Atlas. Our analysis revealed markedly higher COX-1 mRNA expression than COX-2 in high-grade serous ovarian cancers (HGSOC) and higher COX-1 expression in HGSOC tumors than 10 other tumor types. High expression of COX-1 in HGSOC tumors was confirmed in an independent tissue microarray. In contrast, lower or similar expression of COX-1 compared to COX-2 was observed in endometrioid, mucinous and clear cell tumors. Stable COX-1 knockdown in HGSOC-representative OVCAR-3 ovarian cancer cells reduced gene expression in multiple pro-tumorigenic pathways. Functional cell viability, clonogenicity, and migration/invasion assays were consistent with transcriptomic changes. These effects were reversed by stable over-expression of COX-1 in SKOV-3 cells. Our results demonstrate a distinct pattern of COX-1 over-expression in HGSOC tumors and strong association of COX-1 with multiple pro-tumorigenic pathways in ovarian cancer cells. These findings provide additional insight into the role of COX-1 in human ovarian cancer and support further development of methods to selectively target COX-1 in the management of HGSOC tumors.

BackgroundOvarian cancer is the most lethal gynecologic malignancy, with limited treatment options for chemoresistant disease. An important link between inflammation and peritoneal spread of ovarian cancer is NF-κB signaling. Thymoquinone (TQ) exerts multiple anti-tumorigenic cellular effects, including NF-κB inhibition. We aimed to investigate the therapeutic potential of TQ in an established murine syngeneic model of ovarian cancer.MethodsID8-NGL mouse ovarian cancer cells stably expressing an NF-κB reporter transgene were injected intra-peritoneally into C57BL/6 mice, and mice were treated with TQ or vehicle for 10 or 30 days. TQ was combined with the macrophage depleting drug, liposomal clodronate, in selected experiments. Effects on peritoneal tumor burden were measured by volume of ascites, number of peritoneal implants and mesenteric tumor mass. NF-κB reporter activity and markers of proliferation and apoptosis were measured in tumors and in confirmatory in vitro experiments. Protein or mRNA expression of M1 (anti-tumor) and M2 (pro-tumor) macrophage markers, and soluble cytokine profiles, were examined from harvested ascites fluid, peritoneal lavages and/or tumor sections. 2-tailed Mann–Whitney tests were used for measuring differences between groups in in vivo experiments.ResultsConsistent with its effects in vitro, TQ reduced proliferation and increased apoptosis in ID8-NGL tumors after 10 and 30 day treatment. Prolonged TQ treatment did not significantly alter tumor number or mass compared to vehicle, but rather exerted an overall deleterious effect by stimulating ascites formation. Increased ascites was accompanied by elevated NF-κB activity in tumors and macrophages, increased pro-tumor M2 macrophages and expression of pro-tumorigenic soluble factors such as VEGF in ascites fluid, and increased tumor infiltration of M2 macrophages. In contrast, a 10 day exposure to TQ produced no ascites, and reduced tumor NF-κB activity, M2 macrophages and soluble VEGF levels. Peritoneal macrophage depletion by clodronate significantly reduced tumor burden. However, TQ-stimulated ascites was further enhanced by co-treatment with clodronate, with macrophages present overwhelmingly of the M2 phenotype.ConclusionsOur findings show that pro-tumorigenic microenvironmental effects limited the efficacy of TQ in a syngeneic mouse model of ovarian cancer, and provide caution regarding its potential use in clinical trials in ovarian cancer patients.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12943-015-0463-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

BackgroundOvarian cancer is the most lethal gynecologic malignancy characterized by the frequent development of resistance to platinum chemotherapy. Finding new drug combinations to overcome platinum resistance is a key clinical challenge. Thymoquinone (TQ) is a component of black seed oil that exerts multiple anti-tumorigenic effects on cells, including inhibition of NF-κB and promotion of DNA damage. We aimed to determine whether TQ enhances cisplatin cytotoxicity in cultured ovarian cancer cells and in an established murine syngeneic model of ovarian cancer.MethodsOvarian cancer cell viability in vitro was measured by sulforhodamine B (SRB) assays, and drug interactions tested for synergism by isobologram analysis. ID8-NGL mouse ovarian cancer cells stably expressing an NF-κB reporter transgene were injected intra-peritoneally into C57BL/6 mice. After 30 day TQ and/or cisplatin treatment, we measured the following indices: tumor burden (ascites volume, number of peritoneal implants and mesenteric tumor mass); NF-κB reporter activity (luciferase assay); protein expression of the double-strand DNA break marker, pH2AX(ser139), the proliferation markers, Ki67/mib-1 and PCNA, and the apoptosis markers, cleaved caspase-3, cleaved PARP and Bax; and mRNA expression of NF-κB targets, TNF-α and IL-1β. Two-tailed Mann–Whitney tests were used for measuring differences between groups in mouse experiments.ResultsIn SRB assays, TQ and cisplatin synergized in ID8-NGL cells. In mice, cisplatin significantly reduced cell proliferation and increased apoptosis in tumors, resulting in decreased overall tumor burden. Combining TQ with cisplatin further decreased these indices, indicating co-operative effects between the drugs. TQ treatment promoted cisplatin-induced pH2AX expression in cultured cells and in tumors. While NF-κB inhibition by TQ induced anti-tumor effects in vitro, we made the unexpected observation that TQ alone increased both tumor NF-κB activity and formation of ascites in vivo.ConclusionsTQ enhanced cisplatin-mediated cytoxicity in ovarian cancer cells in vitro and in a mouse syngeneic model, effects associated with increased DNA damage. However, our results strongly caution that TQ treatment alone may have an overall deleterious effect in the immunocompetent host through stimulation of ascites. Since TQ is a potential candidate for future clinical trials in ovarian cancer patients, this finding has considerable potential relevance to the clinic.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13048-015-0177-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.