Landscape ecology is a new subject in ecology characterized by two main approaches: a geographical one, which studies how man affects and manages landscapes; and an ecological one, which emphasizes the effects of spatial structure on ecological processes and the importance of these relationships for conservation purposes. The construction of a common theoretical foundation is a difficult task with the coexistence of different and conflicting notions and definitions from these two approaches. In the present work, I present a unified notion of landscape as "a heterogeneous mosaic composed by interactive landscape units, where heterogeneity exists for at least one parameter, one specific observer and at a particular scale". The heterogeneity is essentially interpreted through the "human eyes" in the geographical approach and through the "eyes" of other species or communities in the ecological perspective. The proposed landscape definition also shows that landscape does not necessarily correspond to broad spatial scales or a new biological level, just above the ecosystem. The scale and the biological level will be determined by the observer or the studied species. Landscape ecology is promoting a paradigm shift in fragmentation and biological conservation studies as far as it integrates the spatial heterogeneity and the concept of scale in the ecological analysis, transforming ecology in a more useful science for environmental problem solving.A ecologia de paisagens é uma nova área de conhecimento dentro da ecologia, marcada pela existência de duas principais abordagens: uma geográfica, que privilegia o estudo da influência do homem sobre a paisagem e a gestão do território; e outra ecológica, que enfatiza a importância do contexto espacial sobre os processos ecológicos, e a importância destas relações em termos de conservação biológica. Estas abordagens apresentam conceitos e definições distintas e por vezes conflitantes, que dificultam a concepção de um arcabouço teórico comum. Nesse trabalho, proponho uma definição integradora de paisagem como sendo "um mosaico heterogêneo formado por unidades interativas, sendo esta heterogeneidade existente para pelo menos um fator, segundo um observador e numa determinada escala de observação". Esse "mosaico heterogêneo" é essencialmente visto pelos olhos do homem, na abordagem geográfica, e pelo olhar das espécies ou comunidades estudadas na abordagem ecológica. O conceito de paisagem proposto evidencia ainda que a paisagem não é obrigatoriamente um amplo espaço geográfico ou um novo nível hierárquico de estudo em ecologia, justo acima de ecossistemas, pois a escala e o nível biológico de análise dependem do observador e do objeto de estudo. A ecologia de paisagens vem promovendo uma mudança de paradigma nos estudos sobre fragmentação e conservação de espécies e ecossistemas, pois permite a integração da heterogeneidade espacial e do conceito de escala na análise ecológica, tornando esses trabalhos ainda mais aplicados para resolução de problemas ambientais.
This study explores the relation between landscape structure and tree species richness in a tropical area suffering deforestation since the second half of the 19th century. Three different null hypotheses were tested: (1) there is no relationship between landscape structure and tree species diversity present in fragments because the process of fragmentation in these landscapes is too recent to result in tree species extinction; (2) species characteristics do not influence the relationship between tree richness and landscape structure; (3) scale of analysis does not influence the relationship between tree richness and landscape structure. I studied 11 fragments of mesophytic semideciduous forest occurring along the Jacaré-Pepira river (southeast Brazil). From a classified Thematic Mapper image, the landscape structure was quantified using parameters of fragment structure, forest arrangement, landscape complexity, and landscape composition. To investigate the influence of scale over tree species richness, forest and landscape parameters were evaluated around the studied fragments for three different landscape extents. Each forest fragment community was divided into functional groups according to species dispersal capability and shade tolerance, to distinguish possible differences in landscape perception. The relationships between landscape and community parameters were evaluated with regression and discriminant analyses. Results showed significant relations between landscape parameters and species diversity. The nature of these relations changed according to the group and to the landscape extent considered, supporting the view that species perceive the landscape structure differently. The influence of landscape appears to be stronger for shade-tolerant, zoochorous, and barochorous species. Shade-tolerant species were particularly influenced by the fragment structure (connectivity). Zoochorous species were particularly sensitive to landscape parameters at broad scales, whereas barochorous species responded mainly to landscape structure at fine scales. These results attest to an influence of the present landscape structure on the tree community, although the time lag of extinction occurring for longlived trees may be longer than one century. Furthermore, results showed that boundary complexity and fragment connectivity were the most important parameters of landscape linked to the functional group richness and to total diversity, attesting to the importance of the matrix structure in the relationships between landscape and fragmented communities.
Several studies suggest that, on a large scale, relief conditions influence the Atlantic Forest cover. The aim of this work was to explore these relationships on a local scale, in Caucaia do Alto, on the Ibiúna Plateau. Within an area of about 78 km 2 , the distribution of forest cover, divided into two successional stages, was associated with relief attribute data (slope, slope orientation and altitude). The mapping of the vegetation was based on the interpretation of stereoscopic pairs of aerial photographs, from April 2000, on a scale of 1:10,000, while the relief attributes were obtained by geoprocessing from digitalized topographic maps on a scale of 1:10,000. Statistical analyses, based on qui-square tests, revealed that there was a more extensive forest cover, irrespective of the successional stage, in steeper areas (>10 degrees) located at higher altitudes (>923 m), but no influence of the slope orientation. There was no sign of direct influence of relief on the forest cover through environmental gradients that might have contributed to the forest regeneration. Likewise, there was no evidence that these results could have been influenced by the distance from roads or urban areas or with respect to permanent preservation areas. Relief seems to influence the forest cover indirectly, since agricultural land use is preferably made in flatter and lower areas. These results suggest a general distribution pattern of the forest remnants, independent of the scale of study, on which relief indirectly has a strong influence, since it determines human occupation.Keywords: relief, forest cover, Atlantic Forest, land use. Influência do relevo na distribuição espacial da Mata Atlântica no Planalto de Ibiúna, SP ResumoVários estudos sugerem que as condições do relevo influenciam, em larga escala, a cobertura da Mata Atlântica. Este trabalho teve por objetivo explorar estas relações em escala local, na região do Planalto de Ibiúna, denominada de Caucaia do Alto. Numa área de cerca de 78 km 2 , procurou-se associar a cobertura florestal, dividida em dois estádios sucessionais, com atributos do relevo (declividade, orientação de vertente e altitude). O mapeamento da vegetação foi feito a partir da interpretação de pares estereoscópicos de fotografias aéreas de abril de 2000, na escala 1:10.000, enquanto os atributos do relevo foram gerados por geoprocessamento a partir de cartas topográficas digitalizadas, em escala 1:10.000. As análises estatísticas, baseadas em testes de qui-quadrado, revelam que há maior cobertura florestal, independentemente do estádio sucessional, em áreas mais íngremes (>10 graus) e situadas em altitudes mais elevadas (>923 m), porém não há influência da orientação de vertente. Não há indícios de influência direta do relevo sobre a cobertura florestal, através de gradientes ambientais que poderiam agir na regeneração florestal. Também não foram obtidas evidências de que estes resultados possam ser influenciados pelo distanciamento a estradas ou centros urbanos, ou ainda pelo respeito às áreas...
The main objective of this study was to characterize the tree arboreal species composition and to compare secondary and mature forests of the Morro Grande Forest Reserve (Cotia, metropolitan region of São Paulo, Brazil). Based on this evaluation, we discuss the forest type classification and the conservation value of this Reserve. We used the point centered quarter method, sampling 2,400 trees in six different sites, three with secondary forests and three other ones with a predominance of mature forests. In each site, four blocks of 25 points were assessed, totalizing 100 points or 400 individuals. The blocks were 200 m apart from each other. Data were analyzed through cluster and Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA). Results showed differences among sites, essentially differentiating the secondary and mature sites. DCA and cluster analyses were particularly useful to detect characteristic species for these two main successsional stages. Among the 260 species observed, only 12 were sampled in the six sites. Richness and diversity were surprisingly high when compared with previous studies in the study region. The Shannon diversity values were among the highest in the state of São Paulo, with 4.75 nats/tree for the whole sampling, 4.25 nats/tree for the three secondary sites, and 4.54 nats/tree for the three mature sites. The studied forest may be essentially classified as "Dense Mountain Rain Forest" presenting species from the Araucaria mixed forest, and also from the semi-deciduous forest and Cerrado (woody savanna) region. Those results seem to confirm the hypothesis of a "high montane refuge" in drier climatic conditions in the past. The high richness and mixed composition of different floras highlighted the importance to preserve the Morro Grande forest.
No abstract
-(Litter production in a fragmented Atlantic forest landscape (Ibiúna, SP): the importance of the edge and fragment size). Litter is an important compartment in tropical forests, responsible for most of nutrient cycling. Several environmental factors may affect litter production, and the ones mostly investigated are climate and vegetation structure. The influence of landscape structure on patterns of litter production is poorly studied. This study investigated edge and size effects on patterns of litter production in three Atlantic forest fragments (Ibiúna, SP: 23°35' S -23°50' S; 46°45' W -47°15' W), one large (ca. 175 ha) and two small (ca. 5 ha) with different degrees of isolation. The litter collected was fractioned following the predominant plant material, and grouped into two periods, of high and low production. We used analysis of variance and a posteriori tests to detect differences in litter production between edge and center of each fragment, and among the centers of the three fragments. Most biomass consisted of "leaves+flowers", followed by "twigs £ 0.5 cm" (62.9% and 24.7% of the total), a common pattern in tropical forests. It was possible to perceive an edge effect related to litter production in the three fragments, especially in the large one, and higher litter production in their centers. The observed patterns showed to be strongly related to the vegetation structure, as the size of trees and canopy density. A higher production of "fruits+seeds" in the large fragment or in the small and connected one indicate a relationship between forest connectivity and the activity of disperser animals.Key words -habitat fragmentation, landscape structure, litterfall, litter production, Plateau Atlantic forest RESUMO -(Produção de serapilheira em floresta Atlântica secundária numa paisagem fragmentada (Ibiúna, SP): importância da borda e tamanho dos fragmentos). A serapilheira constitui um importante compartimento florestal, principal responsável pela ciclagem dos nutrientes. Diversos fatores podem afetar a produção de serapilheira, sendo os climáticos e a estrutura da vegetação os mais comumente investigados. Também a estrutura da paisagem pode influir nos padrões de produção da serapilheira, abordagem ainda muito pouco explorada. Este estudo objetivou avaliar efeitos de borda e de tamanho na produção de serapilheira em três fragmentos de Floresta Atlântica de Planalto (Ibiúna, SP: 23°35' S -23°50' S; 46°45' W -47°15' W), um grande (aproximadamente 175 ha) e dois pequenos (aproximadamente 5 ha), com diferentes graus de isolamento. A serapilheira coletada foi separada em frações, conforme os órgãos vegetais predominantes, e em dois períodos, conforme maior ou menor produção. Foram utilizadas análises de variância e testes a posteriori para detectar diferenças na produção de serapilheira entre borda e interior de cada fragmento, e entre os interiores dos três fragmentos analisados. A maior biomassa foi de "folhas+flores", seguida de "caules £ 0,5 cm" (62,9% e 24,7% do total), padrão comum em floresta...
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