Transcriptional programs instruct the generation and maintenance of diverse subtypes of neural cells, establishment of distinct brain regions, formation and function of neural circuits, and ultimately behavior. Spatiotemporal and cell type-specific analyses of the transcriptome, the sum total of all RNA transcripts in a cell or an organ, can provide insights into the role of genes in brain development and function, and their potential contribution to disorders of the brain. In the previous decade, advances in sequencing technology and funding from the National Institutes of Health and private foundations for large-scale genomics projects have led to a growing collection of brain transcriptome databases. These valuable resources provide rich and high-quality datasets with spatiotemporal, cell type-specific, and single-cell precision. Most importantly, many of these databases are publicly available via user-friendly web interface, making the information accessible to individual scientists without the need for advanced computational expertise. Here, we highlight key publicly available brain transcriptome databases, summarize the tissue sources and methods used to generate the data, and discuss their utility for neuroscience research.
SYNOPSIS Pro-inflammatory cytokines and growth factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) contribute to the loss of the blood-retinal barrier (BRB) and subsequent macular edema in various retinal pathologies. VEGF signaling requires conventional PKC (PKCβ) activity; however, PKCβ inhibition only partially prevents VEGF-induced endothelial permeability and does not affect pro-inflammatory cytokine-induced permeability suggesting the involvement of alternative signaling pathways. Here, we provide evidence for the involvement of atypical protein kinase C (aPKC) signaling in VEGF-induced endothelial permeability and identify a novel class of inhibitors of aPKC that prevent BRB breakdown in vivo. Genetic and pharmacological manipulations of aPKC isoforms were used to assess their contribution to endothelial permeability in culture. A chemical library was screened using an in vitro kinase assay to identify novel small molecule inhibitors and further medicinal chemistry was performed to delineate a novel pharmacophore. We demonstrate that aPKC isoforms are both sufficient and required for VEGF-induced endothelial permeability. Furthermore, these specific, potent, non-competitive, small molecule inhibitors prevented VEGF-induced tight junction internalization and retinal endothelial permeability in response to VEGF in both primary culture and in rodent retina. These data suggest that aPKC inhibition with 2-amino-4-phenyl-thiophene derivatives may be developed to preserve the BRB in retinal diseases such as diabetic retinopathy or uveitis and the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in the presence of brain tumors.
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