Purpose Blocking the immunosuppressive PD-1/PD-L1 pathway has anti-tumor activity in multiple cancer types, and PD-L1 expression on tumor cells and infiltrating myeloid cells correlates with the likelihood of response. We previously found that IFNG (interferon-gamma) was over-expressed by TILs in PD-L1+ vs. PD-L1(−) melanomas, creating adaptive immune resistance by promoting PD-L1 display. The current study was undertaken to identify additional factors in the PD-L1+ melanoma microenvironment coordinately contributing to immunosuppression. Experimental design Archived, formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded melanoma specimens were assessed for PD-L1 protein expression at the tumor cell surface with immunohistochemistry (IHC). Whole genome expression analysis, quantitative (q)RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry, and functional in vitro validation studies were employed to assess factors differentially expressed in PD-L1+ versus PD-L1(−) melanomas. Results Functional annotation clustering based on whole genome expression profiling revealed pathways up-regulated in PD-L1+ melanomas, involving immune cell activation, inflammation, and antigen processing and presentation. Analysis by qRT-PCR demonstrated over-expression of functionally related genes in PD-L1+ melanomas, involved in CD8+ T cell activation (CD8A, IFNG, PRF1, CCL5), antigen presentation (CD163, TLR3, CXCL1, LYZ), and immunosuppression [PDCD1 (PD-1), CD274(PD-L1), LAG3, IL10]. Functional studies demonstrated that some factors, including IL-10 and IL-32-gamma, induced PD-L1 expression on monocytes but not tumor cells. Conclusions These studies elucidate the complexity of immune checkpoint regulation in the tumor microenvironment, identifying multiple factors likely contributing to coordinated immunosuppression. These factors may provide tumor escape mechanisms from anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapy, and should be considered for co-targeting in combinatorial immunomodulation treatment strategies.

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BackgroundLimited adjuvant treatment options exist for patients with high-risk surgically resected melanoma. This first-in-human study investigated the safety, tolerability and immunologic correlates of Melanoma GVAX, a lethally irradiated granulocyte–macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-secreting allogeneic whole-cell melanoma vaccine, administered in the adjuvant setting.MethodsPatients with stage IIB-IV melanoma were enrolled following complete surgical resection. Melanoma GVAX was administered intradermally once every 28 days for four cycles, at 5E7 cells/cycle (n = 3), 2E8 cells/cycle (n = 9), or 2E8 cells/cycle preceded by cyclophosphamide 200 mg/m2 to deplete T regulatory cells (Tregs; n = 8). Blood was collected before each vaccination and at 4 and 6 months after treatment initiation for immunologic studies. Vaccine injection site biopsies and additional blood samples were obtained 2 days after the 1st and 4th vaccines.ResultsAmong 20 treated patients, 18 completed 4 vaccinations. Minimal treatment-related toxicity was observed. One patient developed vitiligo and patches of white hair during the treatment and follow-up period. Vaccine site biopsies demonstrated complex inflammatory infiltrates, including significant increases in eosinophils and PD-1+ lymphocytes from cycle 1 to cycle 4 (P < 0.05). Serum GM-CSF concentrations increased significantly in a dose-dependent manner 48 h after vaccination (P = 0.0086), accompanied by increased numbers of activated circulating monocytes (P < 0.0001) and decreased percentages of myeloid-derived suppressor cells among monocytes (CD14+ , CD11b+ , HLA-DR low or negative; P = 0.002). Cyclophosphamide did not affect numbers of circulating Tregs. No significant changes in anti-melanoma immunity were observed in peripheral T cells by interferon-gamma ELIPSOT, or immunoglobulins by serum Western blotting.ConclusionMelanoma GVAX was safe and tolerable in the adjuvant setting. Pharmacodynamic testing revealed complex vaccine site immune infiltrates and an immune-reactive profile in circulating monocytic cell subsets. These findings support the optimization of Melanoma GVAX with additional monocyte and dendritic cell activators, and the potential development of combinatorial treatment regimens with synergistic agents.Trial registration: NCT01435499Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12967-015-0572-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

In parietal cells, basolateral Ae2 Cl ؊ /HCO 3؊ exchanger (Slc4a2) appears to compensate for luminal H ؉ pumping while providing Cl ؊ for apical secretion. In mouse and rat, mRNA variants Ae2a, Ae2b1, Ae2b2, and Ae2c2 are all found in most tissues (although the latter at very low levels), whereas Ae2c1 is restricted to the stomach. We studied the acid secretory function of gastric mucosa in mice with targeted disruption of Ae2a, Ae2b1, and Ae2b2 (but not Ae2c) isoforms. In the oxyntic mucosa of Ae2 a,b ؊/؊ mice, total Ae2 protein was nearly undetectable, indicating low gastric expression of the Ae2c isoforms. In Ae2 a,b ؊/؊ mice basal acid secretion was normal, whereas carbachol/histamine-stimulated acid secretion was impaired by 70%. These animals showed increased serum gastrin levels and hyperplasia of G

Mitogenic stimulation of lymphocytes involves alkalinization of intracellular pH (pH i ). Subsequent pH i regulation may involve HCOAdditional supporting information may be found in the online version of this article at the publisher's web-site

HIV primary infection occurs at mucosa tissues, suggesting an intricate interplay between microbiome and HIV infection. Recent advanced technologies of high-throughput sequencing and bioinformatics allow researchers to explore nonculturable microbes including bacteria, virus and fungi and their association with diseases. HIV/SIV infection is associated with microbiome shifts and immune activation that may affect the outcome of disease progression. Similarly, altered microbiome and inflammation are associated with increased risks of HIV acquisition, suggesting the role of microbiome in HIV transmission. In this review, we will focus on microbiome in HIV infection at various mucosal compartments. Understanding the relationship between microbiome and HIV may offer insights into development of better strategies for HIV prevention and treatment.

Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) is a chronic cholestatic disease of unknown etiopathogenesis showing progressive autoimmune-mediated cholangitis. In PBC patients, the liver and lymphocytes exhibit diminished expression of AE2/SLC4A2, a Cl−/HCO3− anion exchanger involved in biliary bicarbonate secretion and intracellular pH regulation. Decreased AE2 expression may be pathogenic as Ae2a,b−/− mice reproduce hepatobiliary and immunological features resembling PBC. To understand the role of AE2 deficiency for autoimmunity predisposition we focused on the phenotypic changes of T cells that occur over the life-span of Ae2a,b−/− mice. At early ages (1-9 months), knockout mice had reduced numbers of intrahepatic T cells, which exhibited increased activation, programmed-cell-death (PD)-1 expression, and apoptosis. Moreover, young knockouts had upregulated PD-1 ligand (PD-L1) on bile-duct cells, and administration of neutralizing anti-PD-L1 antibodies prevented their intrahepatic T-cell deletion. Older (≥10 months) knockouts, however, showed intrahepatic accumulation of cytotoxic CD8+ T cells with downregulated PD-1 and diminished apoptosis. In-vitro DNA demethylation with 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine partially reverted PD-1 downregulation of intrahepatic CD8+ T cells from aged knockouts. Conclusion: Early in life, AE2 deficiency results in intrahepatic T-cell activation and PD-1/PD-L1 mediated deletion. With aging, intrahepatic CD8+ T cells epigenetically suppress PD-1, and their consequential expansion and further activation favor autoimmune cholangitis.

Objective Gender differences in immune response and the rate of disease progression in HIV-infected individuals have been reported but the underlying mechanism remains unclear, in part due to the lack of relevant animal models. Here, we report a novel nonhuman primate (NHP) model for investigation of sex disparity in HIV disease progression. Design/Methods Viral load and rate of disease progression were evaluated in rhesus macaques infected intrarectally with lineage-related subtype C R5 SHIVs. Cytokine/chemokine levels in rectal swab eluates, and bacterial species adherent to the swabs and in the feces were determined. Results SHIV infected female rhesus macaques progressed faster to AIDS than males, recapitulating the sex bias in HIV-1 disease in humans. There were no significant differences in the levels of soluble immune mediators in the rectal mucosa of naïve female and male macaques. However, an exploratory longitudinal study in six infected macaques indicates that the females mounted an earlier and more robust proinflammatory skewed rectal immune response to infection. Moreover, expansion of Proteobacteria that increase in other intestinal inflammatory disorders was significantly higher in the rectal mucosa of female than male macaques during acute infection. Conclusion These findings suggest that sex differences in local innate immune activation and compositional shifts in the gut microbiota could be the drivers of increased disease susceptibility in females. Further studies with this novel NHP model of HIV infection could lead to innovative research on gender differences, which may have important therapeutic implications for controlling disease in infected men as well as women.