CNS axons differ in diameter (d) by nearly 100-fold (~ 0.1 to 10μm); therefore they differ in cross-sectional area (d2) and volume by nearly 10,000-fold. If, as found for optic nerve, mitochondrial volume-fraction is constant with axon diameter, energy capacity would rise with axon volume, also as d2. Given constraints on space and energy, we asked what functional requirements set an axon’s diameter? Surveying 16 fiber groups spanning nearly the full range of diameters in five species (guinea pig, rat, monkey, locust, octopus), we found that: (i) thin axons are most numerous; (ii) mean firing frequencies, estimated for 9 of the identified axon classes, are low for thin fibers and high for thick ones, ranging from ~1 to >100Hz; (iii) a tract’s distribution of fiber diameters, whether narrow or broad, and whether symmetric or skewed, reflects heterogeneity of information rates conveyed by its individual fibers; (iv) mitochondrial volume/axon length, rises ≥ d2. To explain the pressure towards thin diameters we note an established law of diminishing returns: an axon, to double its information rate, must more than double its firing rate. Since diameter is apparently linear with firing rate, doubling information rate would more than quadruple an axon’s volume and energy use. Thicker axons may be needed to encode features that cannot be efficiently decoded if their information is spread over several low-rate channels. Thus information rate may be the main variable that sets axon caliber - with axons constrained to deliver information at the lowest acceptable rate.

Neural prostheses have the potential to improve the quality of life of individuals with paralysis by directly mapping neural activity to limb and computer control signals. We translated a neural prosthetic system previously developed in animal model studies for use by two individuals with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) implanted with intracortical microelectrode arrays. Measured more than a year post-implantation, the demonstrated neural cursor control has the highest published performance achieved by a person to date, more than double that of previous pilot clinical trial participants.