The Muller F element (4.2 Mb, ~80 protein-coding genes) is an unusual autosome of Drosophila melanogaster; it is mostly heterochromatic with a low recombination rate. To investigate how these properties impact the evolution of repeats and genes, we manually improved the sequence and annotated the genes on the D. erecta, D. mojavensis, and D. grimshawi F elements and euchromatic domains from the Muller D element. We find that F elements have greater transposon density (25–50%) than euchromatic reference regions (3–11%). Among the F elements, D. grimshawi has the lowest transposon density (particularly DINE-1: 2% vs. 11–27%). F element genes have larger coding spans, more coding exons, larger introns, and lower codon bias. Comparison of the Effective Number of Codons with the Codon Adaptation Index shows that, in contrast to the other species, codon bias in D. grimshawi F element genes can be attributed primarily to selection instead of mutational biases, suggesting that density and types of transposons affect the degree of local heterochromatin formation. F element genes have lower estimated DNA melting temperatures than D element genes, potentially facilitating transcription through heterochromatin. Most F element genes (~90%) have remained on that element, but the F element has smaller syntenic blocks than genome averages (3.4–3.6 vs. 8.4–8.8 genes per block), indicating greater rates of inversion despite lower rates of recombination. Overall, the F element has maintained characteristics that are distinct from other autosomes in the Drosophila lineage, illuminating the constraints imposed by a heterochromatic milieu.

Mutualistic plant-endophyte symbioses can benefit plants by increasing host fitness through reductions in herbivory. The fungus, Chaetomium globosum strain TAMU 520, was previously isolated as an endophyte from cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) and can be re-inoculated to systemically colonize cotton plants via seed treatment. We evaluated the potential impacts of the endophyte in cotton on plant parasitic nematodes belowground, along with piercing-sucking and chewing insects aboveground. Endophytic C. globosum inhibited root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) infection and reduced female reproduction belowground. To confirm the endophytic effect of C. globosum on root-knot nematode, a contact fungicide was applied to remove soil-borne and epiphytic C. globosum Consistent inhibition of nematode activity was observed post-fungicide treatment, with positive C. globosum colonization confirmed within plant tissues. Aboveground, endophytic C. globosum also negatively affected the fecundity of both cotton aphids (Aphis gossypii) and beet armyworms (Spodoptera exigua). Faster development rates and smaller head capsule of beet armyworm larvae were observed when fed Chaetomium-colonized plants. However, no larval weight difference was found between Chaetomium-colonized and control plants. No consistent effect on plant performance was found across experiments. Our findings illustrate how a single facultative fungal endophyte can increase plant systemic resistance against a range of invertebrate herbivores in a major crop.

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