The present review summarises the potential nutritional and physiological functions of betaine as a feed additive in relation to performance criteria in livestock production. Betaine, the trimethyl derivative of the amino acid glycine, is a metabolite of plant and animal tissues. In plants, betaine is particularly synthesised and accumulated as an osmoprotectant against salt and temperature stress. In animals, betaine is the product of choline oxidation or it originates from nutritional sources. Over the past decades, numerous studies have been carried out to investigate the potential effects of betaine supplementation on animal performance. Due to its chemical structure, betaine shows the characteristics of a dipolar zwitterion resulting in osmoprotective properties. Promoting effects on the intestinal tract against osmotic stress occurring during diarrhoea or coccidiosis have been reported following betaine supplementation in pigs and poultry. There is also some evidence that dietary betaine may improve the digestibility of specific nutrients. As a product of choline oxidation, betaine is involved in transmethylation reactions of the organism. Betaine as a methyl donor provides its labile methyl groups for the synthesis of several metabolically active substances such as creatine and carnitine. Supplementation with betaine may decrease the requirement for other methyl donors such as methionine and choline. There is also some evidence for enhanced methionine availability after dietary supplementation of betaine resulting in improved animal performance. Alterations in the distribution pattern of protein and fat in the body have been reported following betaine supplementation. A more efficient use of dietary protein may result from a methionine-sparing effect of betaine, but also direct interactions of betaine with metabolism-regulating factors have to be considered. Though the mode of action of betaine as a carcass modifier remains open, there is, however, growing evidence that betaine could have a positive impact both on animal performance and carcass quality.
A balance experiment was carried out to investigate the effects of betaine monohydrate (BET) or betaine derived from condensed molasses solubles (CMS) as a substitute for methionine and choline on nitrogen (N) balance and total tract nutrient digestibility in weaned piglets. The experiment included four treatments with 32 barrows with an average initial body weight (BW) of 13.5 kg. The supplementation of DL-methionine and choline (positive control = PC) to the basal diet, which was deficient in methionine and low in compatible osmolytes in the form of betaine or its precursor choline (negative control = NC) resulted in a significant increase in N retention of 0.8 g/d. The substitution of DL-methionine and choline with BET or CMS did not affect N retention compared to the PC and the NC treatment either. Feeding the PC diet increased the digestibilities of organic matter, NDF, ADF, NFE, crude ash, Ca, P, methionine, tryptophan and cystine by 1.9%, 7.3%, 9.7%, 1.1%, 6.3%, 13.9%, 7.7%, 15.9%, 4.3% and 2.8%, respectively, and tended (p < 0.20) to increase the digestibilities of most other amino acids by 1.6-3.4%. Digestibility of CP, EE (HCl), Mg and Na was 3.1% (p=0.09), 5.1% (p=0.09), 5.1% (p= 0.06) and 3.3% (p= 0.17) higher, respectively, when compared to the NC treatment. BET and CMS supplementation increased most nutrient digestibilities in the same magnitude as for the PC treatment. In summary, the supplementation of betaine, originating from different sources, to a diet with low contents of compatible osmolytes increased in particular the fermentation of fibre and enhanced mineral absorption. The supplementation of the NC with DL-methionine was more efficient in improving N retention than the replacement of DL-methionine by betaine originating from BET or CMS.
A study was conducted to document how smallholder farmers in Ethiopia utilize desho grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum) and explain the determinants of alternative and competing uses of the grass. The study was conducted using a semistructured questionnaire for 240 farmers in the districts of Burie Zuria and Doyogena, complemented with input from key informants and secondary data. The dependent variables tested were the use of desho grass as a feed, multipurpose uses of the grass and types of livestock fed. To test the effect of the explanatory variables on the dependent variables, separate univariate Probit models were used. Although the majority of respondents can read and write, about 23% of respondents were illiterate. The average desho grass-producing farmer in the sample owned 0.95 ha of farmland and 3.56 tropical livestock units; average household size was 6.5 people with a household head who was typically male (91% of households). Eighty percent of respondents in Burie Zuria and all respondents in Doyogena district depended solely on rain for desho grass production. Fifty-eight percent in Burie Zuria and 65% in Doyogena district applied either manure or artificial fertilizer to the grass. Weeding of desho grass was not practiced by any respondents in either district. Sixty percent of farmers used desho grass as a feed and 35% used it for more than a single purpose. Forty-two percent of farmers who fed desho grass did so to only lactating cattle, 3% fed it to small ruminants and 53% fed it to all livestock species. There were significant negative correlations (P<0.01) between both experience in production of desho grass and access to training in its production and utilization, and its utilization as a feed. Seventy percent of farmers in Burie Zuria and 13% in Doyogena have received training in desho grass production. To expand the utilization of the grass to as many farmers as possible, further training should be provided. A multi-faceted approach would be needed for the 23% of illiterate farmers over the 2 districts.Keywords: Cut-and-carry, lactating animals, multipurpose, Probit models. ResumenEn el estudio se analiza la utilización del pasto desho (Pennisetum pedicellatum) por pequeños agricultores en Etiopía y se explican los factores que determinan sus usos alternativos. El trabajo se realizó con la colaboración de 240 agricultores de los distritos de Burie Zuria y Doyogena mediante un cuestionario semi-estructurado, complementado con aportes de informantes clave y datos secundarios. Las variables dependientes analizadas fueron: uso del pasto como forraje; usos multipropósito; y tipo de animales que lo utilizan. Para probar el efecto de las variables explicativas sobre las variables dependientes, se utilizaron modelos Probit univariados en forma separada. Aunque la mayoría de los encuestados sabía leer y escribir, alrededor del 23% de los encuestados eran analfabetos. En la muestra, el productor promedio del pasto desho poseía 0.95 ha de tierra y 3.56 cabezas de ganado (TLU, tropical livestock un...
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