Abstract. Cold-adapted species are expected to have reached their largest distribution range during a part of the Ice Ages whereas postglacial warming has led to their range contracting toward high-latitude and high-altitude areas. This has resulted in an extant allopatric distribution of populations and possibly to trait differentiations (selected or not) or even speciation. Assessing inter-refugium differentiation or speciation remains challenging for such organisms because of sampling difficulties (several allopatric populations) and disagreements on species concept. In the present study, we assessed postglacial inter-refugia differentiation and potential speciation among populations of one of the most common arcto-alpine bumblebee species in European mountains, Bombus monticola Smith, 1849. Based on mitochondrial DNA/nuclear DNA markers and eco-chemical traits, we performed integrative taxonomic analysis to evaluate alternative species delimitation hypotheses and to assess geographical differentiation between interglacial refugia and speciation in arcto-alpine species. Our results show that trait differentiations occurred between most Southern European mountains (i.e. Alps, Balkan, Pyrenees, and Apennines) and Arctic regions. We suggest that the monticola complex actually includes three species: B. konradini stat.n. status distributed in Italy (Central Apennine mountains), B. monticola with five subspecies, including B. monticola mathildis ssp.n. distributed in the North Apennine mountains ; and B. lapponicus. Our results support the hypothesis that post-Ice Age periods can lead to speciation in cold-adapted species through distribution range contraction. We underline the importance of an integrative taxonomic approach for rigorous species delimitation, and for evolutionary study and conservation of taxonomically challenging taxa.

Bumblebees have been the focus of much research, but the taxonomy of many species groups is still unclear, especially for circumpolar species. Delimiting species based on multisource datasets provides a solution to overcome current systematic issues of closely related populations. Here, we use an integrative taxonomic approach based on new genetic and eco-chemical datasets to resolve the taxonomic status of Bombus lapponicus and Bombus sylvicola. Our results support the conspecific status of B. lapponicus and B. sylvicola and that the low gradual divergence around the Arctic Circle between Fennoscandia and Alaska does not imply speciation in this species complex. Therefore, based on our molecular and morphological analyses, we propose to assign them subspecific status: Bombus lapponicus lapponicus from Fennoscandia and West Siberia and Bombus lapponicus sylvicola comb. nov. from Alaska and Yukon. In addition, our analyses reveal a cryptic species in the B. lapponicus complex from Alaska, which we describe here as new: Bombus (Pyrobombus) interacti sp. nov.

The phylogenetic relationships within the New and Old World hawk-eagle assemblage (genus Spizaetus; Aves: Accipitridae) were studied using mitochondrial DNA sequences (cytochrome b, control region). Eighty-four specimens representing all Spizaetus species and almost all currently distinguished subspecies as well as 11 other booted and non-booted ÔeagleÕ genera from the Neotropics, Africa, Eurasia, South Asia and Australasia (Oroaetus, Harpia, Morphnus, Lophaetus, Stephanoaetus, Hieraaetus, Aquila, Ictinaetus, Spilornis, Pithecophaga, Harpyopsis) were investigated. Although the basal branching could not be resolved, our investigations clearly indicate that hawk-eagles represent a paraphyletic assemblage and thus their external similarities have to be ascribed to convergent evolution. The New World taxa of Spizaetus cluster together, but the South American species Oroaetus isidori appears embedded within this clade. The taxa from Southeast to East Asia form a clearly separated monophyletic group. It is further divided into two subgroups, which are also characterized by distinct juvenile plumage patterns. Spizaetus africanus, the only African representative of the genus, is found in a mixed cluster consisting of members of the genera Aquila and Hieraaetus. These findings are in accordance with previous studies of other authors based on various molecular markers and different sets of taxa, but disagree with current taxonomy. Therefore, we suggest assigning the species of the genus Spizaetus to three different genera: (1) Spizaetus (including Oroaetus isidori) in Central and South America and (2) Nisaetus for the Southeast to East Asian group. (3) The African taxon (Spizaetus africanus) is discussed to be included into the genus Aquila. Furthermore, we propose to use the former genus name Lophotriorchis Sharpe, 1874, for the monotypic species Hieraaetus kienerii, which has an isolated phylogenetic position.

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1. Due to globalisation, trade and transport, the spread of alien species is increasing dramatically. Some alien species become ecologically harmful by threatening native biota. This can lead to irreversible changes in local biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, and, ultimately, to biotic homogenisation. 2. We risk‐assessed all alien plants, animals, fungi and algae, within certain delimitations, that are known to reproduce in Norway. Mainland Norway and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard plus Jan Mayen were treated as separate assessment areas. Assessments followed the Generic Ecological Impact Assessment of Alien Species (GEIAA) protocol, which uses a fully quantitative set of criteria. 3. A total of 1,519 species were risk‐assessed, of which 1,183 were species reproducing in mainland Norway. Among these, 9% were assessed to have a severe impact, 7% high impact, 7% potentially high impact, and 49% low impact, whereas 29% had no known impact. In Svalbard, 16 alien species were reproducing, one of which with a severe impact. 4. The impact assessments also covered 319 so‐called door‐knockers, that is, species that are likely to establish in Norway within 50 years, and 12 regionally alien species. Of the door‐knockers, 8% and 10% were assessed to have a severe and high impact, respectively. 5. The impact category of most species was driven by negative interactions with native species, transformation of threatened ecosystems, or genetic contamination. The proportion of alien species with high or severe impact varied significantly across the different pathways of introduction, taxonomic groups, time of introduction and the environments colonised, but not across continents of origin. 6. Given the large number of alien species reproducing in Norway and the preponderance of species with low impact, it is neither realistic nor necessary to eradicate all of them. Our results can guide management authorities in two ways. First, the use of quantitative assessment criteria facilitates the prioritisation of management resources across species. Second, the background information collected for each species, such as introduction pathways, area of occupancy and ecosystems affected, helps designing appropriate management measures.

The behaviour of Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos and Sea Eagles Haliceetus albicilla scavenging on artificially laid out carcasses in coastal Sør‐Trøndelag Province, Norway, was studied during two winters (totalling 640 h of observations) and the intervening summer (430 h). Neither species fed at carcasses in summer. Although smaller, Golden Eagles were strongly dominant over Sea Eagles in direct competition for carcass access. In Sea Eagles, females dominated males, while in Golden Eagles, few conflicts between birds of known sex were observed. Age effects were weak and not statistically significant in both species. Conflicts for carcass access tended to be most escalated between Golden Eagles and least escalated between Sea Eagles, with interspecific conflicts intermediate. Most conflicts were won by the aggressor, suggesting that birds were generally able to assess relative dominance before launching an attack. Young eagles fed longer at a carcass than older individuals in both species, suggesting that young eagles may have been hungrier or less efficient feeders. Sea Eagles waited longer than Golden Eagles between arrival in the immediate carcass area and feeding at the carcass. This effect was greater when the carcass was already occupied but also occurred when no other eagle was already present. While interspecific competition for carrion did not appear to have important consequences for the two species in coastal Norway, in western Scotland, where Sea Eagles are currently re‐establishing, carrion is important in the diet of both species all year round. Interspecific competition for this resource may therefore play a role in determining the ultimate realized niche (and therefore numbers) of the two species in Scotland in the longer term.

We present a phylogeny of all booted eagles (38 extant and one extinct species) based on analysis of published sequences from seven loci. We find molecular support for five major clades within the booted eagles: Nisaetus (10 species), Spizaetus (4 species), Clanga (3 species), Hieraaetus (6 species) and Aquila (11 species), requiring generic changes for 14 taxa. Additionally, we recommend that the Long-crested Eagle (Lophaetus occipitalis) and the Black Eagle (Ictinaetus malaiensis) remain in their monotypic genera, due to their distinctive morphology. We apply the recently resurrected genus Clanga for the spotted eagles (previously Aquila spp.) to resolve the paraphyly of the genus Aquila such that the clade including the Booted Eagle (H. pennatus), Little Eagle (H. morphnoides), Pygmy Eagle (H. weiskei), Ayres's Eagle (H. ayresii) and Wahlberg's Eagle (H. wahlbergi) can remain in the genus Hieraaetus. The Rufous-bellied Eagle should be retained in the genus Lophotriorchis. For consistency in English names, we recommend that the term "hawk-eagles" be used only for the species in the genera Nisaetus and Spizaetus. We suggest following new or modified English names: Cassin's Eagle (Aquila africana), Bonaparte's Eagle (A. spilogaster), Ayres's Eagle (Hieraaetus ayresii), and Black-and-chestnut Hawk-Eagle (Spizaetus isidori).

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