Steering systems of trucks consist of many linkages, which introduce nonlinearities that may negatively affect steering performance. Nowadays, it is possible to equip steering systems with actuators that provide artificial steering characteristics. However, before new steering systems are deployed in real vehicles, evaluation in a safe and controlled simulator environment is recommended. A much-debated question is whether experiments need to be performed in a motion-base simulator or whether a fixed-base simulator suffices. Furthermore, it is unknown whether simulator-based tests can be validly conducted with a convenience sample of university participants who have not driven a truck before. We investigated the effect of steering characteristic (i.e., nonlinear vs. linear) on drivers' subjective opinions about the ride and the steering system, and on their objective driving performance in an articulated tractor-semitrailer combination. Thirty-two participants (12 truck drivers and 20 university drivers) each completed eight 5.5-min drives in which the simulator's motion system was either turned on or off and the steering model either resembled a linear (i.e., artificial) or nonlinear (i.e., realistic) system. Per drive, participants performed a lane-keeping task, merged onto the highway, and completed four overtaking manoeuvers. Results showed that the linear steering system yielded less subjective and objective steering effort, and better lane-keeping performance, than the nonlinear system. Consistent with prior research, participants drove a wider path through curves when motion was on compared to when motion was off. Truck drivers exhibited higher steering activity than university drivers, but there were no significant differences between the two groups in lane keeping performance and steering effort. We conclude that for future truck steering systems, a linear system may be valuable for improving performance. Furthermore, the results suggest that on-centre evaluations of steering systems do not require a motion base, and should not be performed using a convenience sample of university students.
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This paper describes the coupling between a three degrees of freedom steering-system model and a multi-body truck model. The steering-system model includes the kingpin geometry to provide the correct feedback torque from the road to the steering-system. The steering-system model is combined with a validated tractor semi-trailer model. An instrumented tractor semi-trailer has been tested on a proving ground and the steering-wheel torque, pitmanarm angle, kingpin angles and drag-link force have been measured during steady-state cornering, a step steer input and a sinusoidal steering input. It is shown that the steering-system model is able to accurately predict the steering-wheel torque for all tests and the vehicle model is accurate for vehicle motions up to a frequency where the lateral acceleration gain is minimum. Even though the vehicle response is not accurate above this frequency, the steeringwheel torque is still represented accurately.
In this paper a multi-body 44-DOF tractor semi-trailer model is coupled to a 4-DOF steeringsystem which includes friction and hydraulic power-steering. An extended wheel hub geometry is used to provide the correct feedback torque from the wheels. A tie-rod with stiffness has been included to connect left and right. An instrumented tractor semi-trailer is used to verify the steering-system model predictions during driving. The focus lies on the prediction of the steering-wheel torque and the vehicle velocity and steering-wheel angle are prescribed as an input for the simulation. Two tests are discussed in this paper, a J-turn at 80 km/h and sinusoidal steering-wheel input with a frequency of 0.4 Hz at 65 km/h. The comparison of the measured signals and the predicted values shows that the steering-system model is accurate. The non-linearities caused by friction and hydraulic assistance system can clearly be seen in both the measurement and the simulation.
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