We report on the advantages and problems of using toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic (TKTD) models for the analysis, understanding, and simulation of sublethal effects. Only a few toxicodynamic approaches for sublethal effects are available. These differ in their effect mechanism and emphasis on linkages between endpoints. We discuss how the distinction between quantal and graded endpoints and the type of linkage between endpoints can guide model design and selection. Strengths and limitations of two main approaches and possible ways forward are outlined.

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Nanoparticles (NPs) interact within organisms via various biochemical interactions which can bring benefits to society. Classically, fate/distribution of substances is assessed via phase (octanol-water) based partitioning. A decade ago, Praetorius...

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