We find that citrate-stabilized gold nanoparticles aggregate and precipitate in saline solutions below the NaCl concentration of many bodily fluids and blood plasma. Our experiments indicate that this is due to complexation of the citrate anions with Na+ cations in solution. A dramatically enhanced colloidal stability is achieved when bovine serum albumin is adsorbed to the gold nanoparticle surface, completely preventing nanoparticle aggregation under harsh environmental conditions where the NaCl concentration is well beyond the isotonic point. Furthermore, we explore the mechanism of the formation of this albumin ‘corona’ and find that monolayer protein adsorption is most likely ruled by hydrophobic interactions. As for many nanotechnology-based biomedical and environmental applications, particle aggregation and sedimentation are undesirable and could substantially increase the risk of toxicological side-effects, the formation of the BSA corona presented here provides a low-cost bio-compatible strategy for nanoparticle stabilization and transport in highly ionic environments.

Block copolymers of polyisoprene and polystyrene are key materials for polymer nanostructures as well as for several commercially established thermoplastic elastomers. In a combined experimental and kinetic Monte Carlo simulation study, the direct (i.e., statistical) living anionic copolymerization of a mixture of isoprene (I) and 4-methylstyrene (4MS) in nonpolar media was investigated on a fundamental level. In situ 1 H NMR spectroscopy enabled to directly monitor gradient formation during the copolymerization and to determine the nature of the gradient. In addition, a precise comparison with the established copolymerization of isoprene and styrene (I/S) was possible. Statistical copolymerization in both systems leads to tapered block copolymers due to an extremely slow crossover from isoprene to the styrenic monomer. For the system I/4MS the determination of the reactivity ratios shows highly disparate values with r I = 25.4 and r 4MS = 0.007, resulting in a steep gradient of the comonomer composition. The rate constants determined from online NMR studies were used for a kinetic Monte Carlo simulation, revealing structural details, such as the distribution of the homopolymer sequences for both blocks, which are a consequence of the peculiar kinetics of the diene/styrene systems. DFT calculations were used to compare the established copolymerization of isoprene and styrene with the isoprene/4-methylstyrene system. A variety of gradient copolymers differing in molecular weight and monomer feed composition were synthesized, confirming strong microphase segregation as a consequence of the blocklike structure. The one-pot synthesis of such tapered block copolymers, avoiding high vacuum or break-seal techniques, is a key advantage for the preparation of ultrahigh molecular weight block copolymers (M n > 1.2 × 10 6 g/mol) in one synthetic step. These materials show microphase-segregated bulk structures like diblock copolymers prepared by sequential block copolymer synthesis. Because of the living nature of the tapered block copolymer structures, a vast variety of complex structures are accessible by the addition of further monomers or monomer mixtures in subsequent steps.

The reactivity of the biobased monomer β-farnesene in the statistical anionic copolymerization with styrene and the effect of the bottlebrush-like polyfarnesene structure on the phase separation behavior were investigated. Furthermore, thermal and material properties of β-farnesene-based thermoplastic elastomers, based on tri- and pentablock copolymers with styrene, and their processing behavior were investigated. As shown by 1H NMR online kinetics, in analogy to both isoprene and β-myrcene, the direct (i.e., statistical) anionic copolymerization of β-farnesene and styrene in cyclohexane affords block-like, tapered copolymers because of the highly diverging reactivity ratios (r Far = 27; r S = 0.037). Algebraic expressions for both the molar and volume composition profiles were derived, which provide a mathematically accurate picture of the tapered copolymer structure. The one-pot, tapered copolymer approach was used to synthesize series of tri- (ABA) and pentablock (ABABA) copolymers of styrene (A) and β-farnesene (B), varying the polydiene volume fraction between 0.50 and 0.68, respectively. Depending on the polydiene volume fraction, the tapered multiblock copolymers showed phase separation in lamellar or hexagonally packed cylindrical structures, as determined by small-angle X-ray scattering. Well-defined tapered tri- and pentablock copolymers with molecular weights of 120 kg mol–1 and low dispersity (Đ = 1.05–1.16) were obtained. The order of the tapered poly­(farnesene-co-styrene) copolymers bears many similarities (same morphology, practically the same domain spacing, and a similar degree of segregation) to the corresponding polyisoprene copolymers with the same polydiene volume fraction. The similar domain spacing is suggestive of looped configurations mainly in the polyisoprene copolymers that are reduced in the polyterpene copolymers. The influence of the long alkenyl side chains of the polyfarnesene middle blocks on the mechanical properties of the multiblock copolymers was investigated by tensile testing. For this purpose, the respective tri- and pentablock copolymers of isoprene (C5 unit) and β-myrcene (C10) with styrene were synthesized as well, containing equal polydiene volume fractions as their β-farnesene-based (C15) analogs. The mechanical toughness of the polymers increased with decreasing length of the alkenyl side chains (from β-farnesene to isoprene). Furthermore, tapered polyfarnesene tri- and pentablock copolymers with styrene exhibit reduced solution viscosity in comparison to, for example, polyisoprene-based tapered PS-b-P­(I-co-S) triblock copolymers, resulting in improved processability by electrospinning. These properties are discussed in terms of the different configurations of the polyterpene blocks and the pronounced differences of the entanglement molecular weights.

The monoterpene myrcene is a bio-based diene monomer. The statistical, living anionic copolymerization with isoprene, styrene and 4-methylstyrene leads to gradient or tapered block copolymers, studied by in-situ NMR, SAXS and TEM.

An investigation of the copolymerization of EO and PO by in situ1H NMR spectroscopy reveals striking differences in the monomer gradient, depending on the polymerization method.

An ideal system for stimuli-responsive and amphiphilic (block) polymers would be the copolymerization of aziridines with epoxides. However, to date, no copolymerization of these two highly strained three-membered heterocycles had been achieved. Herein, we report the combination of the living oxy- and azaanionic ring-opening polymerization of ethylene oxide (EO) and sulfonamide-activated aziridines. In a single step, well-defined amphiphilic block copolymers are obtained by a one-pot copolymerization. Real-time 1H NMR spectroscopy revealed the highest difference in reactivity ratios ever reported for an anionic copolymerization (with r 1 = 265 and r 2 = 0.004 for 2-methyl-N-tosylaziridine/EO and r 1 = 151 and r 2 = 0.013 for 2-methyl-N-mesylaziridine/EO), leading to the formation of block copolymers with monomodal and moderate molecular weight distributions (M w/M n mostly ≤1.3). The amphiphilic diblock copolymers were used to stabilize emulsions and to prepare polymeric nanoparticles by miniemulsion polymerization, representing a novel class of nonionic and responsive surfactants. In addition, this unique comonomer reactivity of activated-Az/EO allows fast access to multiblock copolymers, and we prepared the first amphiphilic penta- or tetrablock copolymers containing aziridines in only one or two steps, respectively. These examples render the combination of epoxide and aziridine copolymerizations via a powerful strategy for producing sophisticated macromolecular architectures and nanostructures.

The statistical copolymerization of isoprene with p-ethyl- (p-ES), p-isopropyl- (p-iPS), and p-tert-butylstyrene (p-tBS) initiated by sec-butyllithium in cyclohexane was investigated with respect to kinetics, reactivity ratios, and formation of tapered block copolymers with pronounced monomer gradient. An efficient synthetic route to the monomers was developed on a multigram scale, relying on the precipitation of the side-product triphenylphosphine oxide at low temperature. The copolymerization kinetics and resulting molecular weight distributions were analyzed. The dispersity, Đ, of the copolymers depends on the p-alkyl substituent, the the degree of polymerization P n and the comonomer mole fraction, X. In situ 1H NMR kinetics characterization revealed a strong gradient structure for all three copolymer systems (r I = 21.9, r p‑ES = 0.022; r I = 19.7, r p‑iPS = 0.027; r I = 19.8, r p‑tBS = 0.022). The rate of crossover from a polyisoprenyl­lithium chain end (I) to a p-alkylstyrene (S) unit relative to the alkylstyrene homopolymerization, k IS/k SS (in 10–3 (L mol–1)−1/4), decreases in the order p-MS (19.1) > p-ES (11.3) > p-iPS (5.71) ≈ p-tBS (5.63), supporting the observed, increasingly bimodal character of the molecular weight distributions and the higher dispersity. Thermogravimetric analysis revealed that all poly­(p-alkylstyrene) homopolymers are stable up to 300 °C.

An ideal random anionic copolymerization is forced to produce gradient structures by physical separation of two monomers in emulsion compartments. One monomer (M) is preferably soluble in the droplets, while the other one (D) prefers the continuous phase of a DMSO-in-cyclohexane emulsion. The living anionic copolymerization of two activated aziridines is thus confined to the DMSO compartments as polymerization occurs selectively in the droplets. Dilution of the continuous phase adjusts the local concentration of monomer D in the droplets and thus the gradient of the resulting copolymer. The copolymerizations in emulsion are monitored by real-time H NMR kinetics, proving a change of the reactivity ratios of the two monomers upon dilution of the continuous phase from ideal random to adjustable gradients by simple dilution.