Male MRL/MpJ mice appear to possess an intrinsic ability to 'regenerate' articular cartilage. Understanding the biochemical and genetic basis for articular cartilage regeneration may open up new treatment options for traumatic articular cartilage defects.

We report the identification of three new collagen VI genes at a single locus on human chromosome 3q22.1. The three new genes are COL6A4, COL6A5, and COL6A6 that encode the ␣4(VI), ␣5(VI), and ␣6(VI) chains. In humans, the COL6A4 gene has been disrupted by a chromosome break. Each of the three new collagen chains contains a 336-amino acid triple helix flanked by seven N-terminal von Willebrand factor A-like domains and two (␣4 and ␣6 chains) or three (␣5 chain) C-terminal von Willebrand factor A-like domains. In humans, mRNA expression of COL6A5 is restricted to a few tissues, including lung, testis, and colon. In contrast, the COL6A6 gene is expressed in a wide range of fetal and adult tissues, including lung, kidney, liver, spleen, thymus, heart, and skeletal muscle. Antibodies to the ␣6(VI) chain stained the extracellular matrix of human skeletal and cardiac muscle, lung, and the territorial matrix of articular cartilage. In cell transfection and immunoprecipitation experiments, mouse ␣4(VI)N6-C2 chain co-assembled with endogenous ␣1(VI) and ␣2(VI) chains to form trimeric collagen VI molecules that were secreted from the cell. In contrast, ␣5(VI)N5-C1 and ␣6(VI)N6-C2 chains did not assemble with ␣1(VI) and ␣2(VI) chains and accumulated intracellularly. We conclude that the ␣4(VI)N6-C2 chain contains all the elements necessary for trimerization with ␣1(VI) and ␣2(VI). In summary, the discovery of three additional collagen VI chains doubles the collagen VI family and adds a layer of complexity to collagen VI assembly and function in the extracellular matrix.Collagen VI is an extracellular component that is present in virtually all connective tissues, where it forms abundant and structurally unique microfibrils in close association with basement membranes. Collagen VI interacts with a range of ECM 2 components. However, its precise role is not clearly understood. Several recent studies have suggested that collagen VI functions to anchor the basement membrane to the pericellular matrix in muscle (1-3). Other data suggest a role for collagen VI in cell signaling and cell migration (4, 5).Three genetically distinct collagen VI chains, ␣1(VI), ␣2(VI), and ␣3(VI), encoded by the COL6A1, COL6A2, and COL6A3 genes were first described more than 20 years ago (6 -8). The COL6A1 and COL6A2 genes are located in tandem on chromosome 21q22.3. The ␣1(VI) and ␣2(VI) chains are similar in size and domain structure. They contain a short 335-or 336-amino acid triple helix with a glycine triplet repeat motif that is characteristic of all collagens. Flanking the triple helix are domains homologous to the A-type domains found in von Willebrand factor (VWA domains). ␣1(VI) and ␣2(VI) contain one VWA domain N-terminal to the triple helix (N1) and two VWA domains on the C-terminal flank of the helix (C1 and C2). In contrast, the ␣3(VI) chain, encoded by the COL6A3 gene on 2q37.3, is much larger with 10 N-terminal (N1-N10), two C-terminal VWA domains (C1 and C2), and several other identifiable types of domains at the C terminus (C3-C5).A...

Objective Emerging evidence suggests that genetic components contribute significantly to cartilage degeneration in osteoarthritis pathophysiology but little evidence is available on genetics of cartilage regeneration. Therefore, we investigated cartilage regeneration in genetic murine models using common inbred strains and a set of recombinant inbred lines generated from LG/J (healer of ear-wounds) and SM/J (non-healer) inbred strains. Methods An acute full-thickness cartilage injury was introduced through microsurgery in the trochlear groove of 8-weeks old mice (N=265). Knee joints were sagittally sectioned and stained with toluidine blue to evaluate regeneration. For ear-wound phenotype, a bilateral 2-mm through-and-through puncture was made (N=229) at 6-weeks and healing outcomes measured after 30-days. Broad-sense heritability and genetic correlations were calculated for both phenotypes. Results Time-course studies from recombinant inbred lines show no significant regeneration until 16-weeks post-surgery; at that time, the strains can be segregated into three categories: good, intermediate and poor healers. Heritability (H2) showed that both cartilage regeneration (H2=26%; p=0.006) and ear-wound closure (H2=53%; p<0.00001) are significantly heritable. The genetic correlations between the two healing phenotypes for common inbred strains (r=0.92) and recombinant inbred lines (r=0.86) were found to be extremely high. Conclusion We report that i) articular cartilage regeneration is heritable, ii) the differences between the lines being due to genetic differences and iii) a strong genetic correlation between the two phenotypes exists indicating that they plausibly share a common genetic basis. We, therefore, surmise that LG/J by SM/J intercross can be used to dissect the genetic basis of variation in cartilage regeneration.

WARP is a novel member of the von Willebrand factor A domain superfamily of extracellular matrix proteins that is expressed by chondrocytes. WARP is restricted to the presumptive articular cartilage zone prior to joint cavitation and to the articular cartilage and fibrocartilaginous elements in the joint, spine, and sternum during mouse embryonic development. In mature articular cartilage, WARP is highly specific for the chondrocyte pericellular microenvironment and co-localizes with perlecan, a prominent component of the chondrocyte pericellular region. WARP is present in the guanidine-soluble fraction of cartilage matrix extracts as a disulfidebonded multimer, indicating that WARP is a strongly interacting component of the cartilage matrix. To investigate how WARP is integrated with the pericellular environment, we studied WARP binding to mouse perlecan using solid phase and surface plasmon resonance analysis. WARP interacts with domain III-2 of the perlecan core protein and the heparan sulfate chains of the perlecan domain I with K D values in the low nanomolar range. We conclude that WARP forms macromolecular structures that interact with perlecan to contribute to the assembly and/or maintenance of "permanent" cartilage structures during development and in mature cartilages. The extracellular matrix (ECM)3 is a complex and dynamic threedimensional environment that plays fundamental roles in morphogenesis and development, tissue structure, repair, and metastasis (1). The tissue-specific expression of collagen types and specialized ECM components results in the formation of architecturally precise interacting networks with unique functional and biological characteristics. A diverse range of ECM components have been described including more than 20 distinct collagen subtypes and a large number of proteoglycans and noncollagenous proteins. Many of these matrix proteins are modular in structure in that they are composed of protein domains, which is important in generating the multifunctionality that is characteristic of ECM proteins (2, 3). One of these domains, found in a growing number of ECM proteins involved in supramolecular structures, is the A domain first described in von Willebrand factor (VWA domain). VWA domains are found in a diverse range of ECM proteins including collagens (types VI, VII, XII, XIV, XX, XXI, XXVII, and XXVIII), matrilins, cochlin, polydom, AMACO (VWA-like domains related to those in matrilins and collagens), and the extracellular portions of nine transmembrane ␣-integrin chains (4 -6)We recently identified a new member of the von Willebrand factor A domain superfamily, WARP (von Willebrand factor A domain-related protein), that may have evolved from a collagen-like molecule (7,8). The WARP protein comprises a single N-terminal VWA domain containing a putative metal ion-dependent adhesion site motif, two fibronectin type III repeats, and a unique C-terminal segment. Our studies demonstrated WARP expression by chondrocytes, and in transfected cells WARP is a secreted glycoprotein that ...

We have previously shown that type I procollagen pro-␣1(I) chains from an osteogenesis imperfecta patient (OI26) with a frameshift mutation resulting in a truncated C-propeptide, have impaired assembly, and are degraded by an endoplasmic reticulum-associated pathway (Lamandé , S. R., Chessler, S. D., Golub, S. B., Byers, P. H., Chan, D., Cole, W. G., Sillence, D. O. and Bateman, J. F. (1995) J. Biol. Chem. 270, 8642-8649). To further explore the degradation of procollagen chains with mutant C-propeptides, mouse Mov13 cells, which produce no endogenous pro-␣1(I), were stably transfected with a pro-␣1(I) expression construct containing a frameshift mutation that predicts the synthesis of a protein 85 residues longer than normal. Despite high levels of mutant mRNA in transfected Mov13 cells, only minute amounts of mutant pro-␣1(I) could be detected indicating that the majority of the mutant pro-␣1(I) chains synthesized are targeted for rapid intracellular degradation. Degradation was not prevented by brefeldin A, monensin, or NH 4 Cl, agents that interfere with intracellular transport or lysosomal function. However, mutant pro-␣1(I) chains in both transfected Mov13 cells and OI26 cells were protected from proteolysis by specific proteasome inhibitors. Together these data demonstrate for the first time that procollagen chains containing C-propeptide mutations that impair assembly are degraded by the cytoplasmic proteasome complex, and that the previously identified endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation of mutant pro-␣1(I) in OI26 is mediated by proteasomes.The major fibrillar collagens (types I, II, and III) are the principal structural components of the extracellular matrix of many tissues, forming characteristic architecturally precise fibrils (1). They are synthesized as precursor molecules with a central triple-helical region containing a Gly-X-Y amino acid repeat motif, flanked by carboxyl-and amino-terminal propeptide globular domains (for review, see Ref.2). Assembly of three individual pro-␣-chains to form a triple helix occurs within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 1 and is initiated by interactions between the C-propeptides. Triple helix folding then occurs sequentially from the COOH to the NH 2 terminus, and is essential for efficient secretion of the procollagen molecules (3). Mutations in the pro-␣1(I) and pro-␣2(I) chains of type I collagen which compromise initial chain association or disturb the folding of the triple helix result in the brittle bone disease osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) (4 -7) and one of the important biosynthetic consequences of these mutations is an increase in intracellular collagen degradation (7).Intracellular degradation is an essential process for regulating the levels of many proteins and an important "quality control" mechanism which minimizes the accumulation within cells and the secretion of mutant or malfolded proteins. Several cellular compartments have been identified as sites for degradation, including the lysosomes which contain acid hydrolases, a post-Golgi non...

Collagen VI is a component of the extracellular matrix of almost all connective tissues, including cartilage, bone, tendon, muscles and cornea, where it forms abundant and structurally unique microfibrils organized into different suprastructural assemblies. The precise role of collagen VI is not clearly defined although it is most abundant in the interstitial matrix of tissues and often found in close association with basement membranes. Three genetically distinct collagen VI chains, α1(VI), α2(VI) and α3(VI), encoded by the COL6A1, COL6A2 and COL6A3 genes, were first described more than 20 years ago. Their molecular assembly and role in congenital muscular dystrophy has been broadly characterized. In 2008, three additional collagen VI genes arrayed in tandem at a single gene locus on chromosome 3q in humans, and chromosome 9 in mice, were described. Following the naming scheme for collagens the new genes were designated COL6A4, COL6A5 and COL6A6 encoding the α4(VI), α5(VI) and α6(VI) chains, respectively. This review will focus on the current state of knowledge of the three new chains.

WARP is a recently identified extracellular matrix molecule with restricted expression in permanent cartilages and a distinct subset of basement membranes in peripheral nerves, muscle, and the central nervous system vasculature. WARP interacts with perlecan, and we also demonstrate here that WARP binds type VI collagen, suggesting a function in bridging connective tissue structures. To understand the in vivo function of WARP, we generated a WARPdeficient mouse strain. WARP-null mice were healthy, viable, and fertile with no overt abnormalities. Motor function and behavioral testing demonstrated that WARP-null mice exhibited a significantly delayed response to acute painful stimulus and impaired fine motor coordination, although general motor function was not affected, suggesting compromised peripheral nerve function. Immunostaining of WARP-interacting ligands demonstrated that the collagen VI microfibrillar matrix was severely reduced and mislocalized in peripheral nerves of WARP-null mice. Further ultrastructural analysis revealed reduced fibrillar collagen deposition within the peripheral nerve extracellular matrix and abnormal partial fusing of adjacent Schwann cell basement membranes, suggesting an important function for WARP in stabilizing the association of the collagenous interstitial matrix with the Schwann cell basement membrane. In contrast, other WARP-deficient tissues such as articular cartilage, intervertebral discs, and skeletal muscle showed no detectable abnormalities, and basement membranes formed normally. Our data demonstrate that although WARP is not essential for basement membrane formation or musculoskeletal development, it has critical roles in the structure and function of peripheral nerves. (3), and in the present study we identify type VI collagen as a ligand for WARP. WARP has a restricted distribution in developing cartilage tissues, where it is expressed at sites of joint cavitation and articular cartilage formation rather than cartilage structures that will undergo endochondral ossification (3). In adult tissues, WARP is highly restricted to the chondrocyte pericellular matrix in articular cartilage and fibrocartilages, where it colocalizes with perlecan and collagen VI (3). Several of the major basement membrane components have been found in the chondrocyte pericellular matrix, suggesting that this structure may be the functional equivalent of a basement membrane in cartilage tissues (4). Consistent with this hypothesis, recent data from our laboratory have demonstrated that WARP is a component of the basement membrane in a limited subset of tissues including the apical ectodermal ridge, the endomysium surrounding muscle fibers, the vasculature of the central nervous system, and the endoneurium of peripheral nerves (5). The principal components of basement membranes are type IV collagen, laminins, nidogens, and proteoglycans including perlecan; however, the composition, structure, and biological properties of basement membranes can differ considerably between different tissues (6,...

We report a new member of the von Willebrand factor A-domain protein superfamily, WARP (for von Willebrand factor A-domain-related protein). The full-length mouse WARP cDNA is 2.3 kb in size and predicts a protein of 415 amino acids which contains a signal sequence, a VA-like domain, two fibronectin type III-like repeats, and a short proline-and arginine-rich segment. WARP mRNA was expressed predominantly in chondrocytes and in vitro expression experiments in transfected 293 cells indicated that WARP is a secreted glycoprotein that forms disulphide-bonded oligomers. We conclude that WARP is a new member of the von Willebrand factor A-domain (VA-domain) superfamily of extracellular matrix proteins which may play a role in cartilage structure and function. ß