Sustainable energy generation calls
for a shift away from centralized,
high-temperature, energy-intensive processes to decentralized, low-temperature
conversions that can be powered by electricity produced from renewable
sources. Electrocatalytic conversion of biomass-derived feedstocks
would allow carbon recycling of distributed, energy-poor resources
in the absence of sinks and sources of high-grade heat. Selective,
efficient electrocatalysts that operate at low temperatures are needed
for electrocatalytic hydrogenation (ECH) to upgrade the feedstocks.
For effective generation of energy-dense chemicals and fuels, two
design criteria must be met: (i) a high H:C ratio via ECH to allow
for high-quality fuels and blends and (ii) a lower O:C ratio in the
target molecules via electrochemical decarboxylation/deoxygenation
to improve the stability of fuels and chemicals. The goal of this
review is to determine whether the following questions have been sufficiently
answered in the open literature, and if not, what additional information
is required:
What organic functionalities are accessible
for electrocatalytic hydrogenation under a set of reaction conditions?
How do substitutions and functionalities impact the activity and selectivity
of ECH?
What material
properties cause an
electrocatalyst to be active for ECH? Can general trends in ECH be
formulated based on the type of electrocatalyst?
What are the impacts of reaction conditions
(electrolyte concentration, pH, operating potential) and reactor types?
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Electrocatalytic
hydrogenation is increasingly studied as an alternative
to integrate the use of recycled carbon feedstocks with renewable
energy sources. However, the abundant empiric observations available
have not been correlated with fundamental properties of substrates
and catalysts. In this study, we investigated electrocatalytic hydrogenation
of a homologues series of carboxylic acids, ketones, phenolics, and
aldehydes on a variety of metals (Pd, Rh, Ru, Cu, Ni, Zn, and Co).
We found that the rates of carbonyl reduction in aldehydes correlate
with the corresponding binding energies between the aldehydes and
the metals according to the Sabatier principle. That is, the highest
rates are obtained at intermediate binding energies. The rates of
H2 evolution that occur in parallel to hydrogenation also
correlate with the H-metal binding energies, following the same volcano-type
behavior. Within the boundaries of this model (e.g., compounds reactive
at room temperature and without important steric effects over the
carbonyl group), the reported correlations help to explain the complex
trends derived from the experimental observations, allowing for the
correlation of rates with binding energies and the differentiation
of mechanistic routes.
Electrocatalytic
reduction of benzaldehyde to benzyl alcohol on
Pd supported on carbon felt was conducted in the aqueous phase using
a continuous flow fixed-bed reactor at room temperature and atmospheric
pressure. Methanol, ethanol, or isopropanol was added to the electrolyte
to study the impact of alcohol type and concentration on the rates
of benzaldehyde electrocatalytic hydrogenation (ECH) and H2 evolution, which is the prevalent side reaction. Whereas the ECH
rates and Faradaic efficiency decreased with increasing alcohol concentrations,
H2 evolution rates remained constant. The impact of the
alcohol on hydrogenation was greater as the length of the alcohol’s
hydrocarbon chain increased. Increasing the benzaldehyde concentration
allows for high ECH rates and high Faradaic efficiency. The reaction
order increased from ∼0.13 to ∼0.66 with half-cell potential
increasing from −650 to −1150 mV (vs Ag/AgCl). Kinetic
analysis reveals that the changes in reaction order are due to changes
in benzaldehyde (and H) surface coverages as a function of half-cell
cathodic potential. Thus, the results shown here reveal how the performance
of the continuous electrocatalytic operation is affected by the electrolyte
composition and half-cell cathodic potential.
Electrocatalytic hydrogenation is
a strategy to hydrogenate biogenic
compounds under ambient conditions by replacing the thermal and H2 inputs by cathodic potential. This work compares the performances
of this approach (in aqueous phase at room temperature) for the conversion
of a variety of model oxygenated compounds over a series of metals.
The target functionalities were carbonyl groups, aromatic rings, and
ether bonds. All of the metals explored (Pt, Rh, Pd, and Cu) are active
for the reduction of carbonyl compounds to alcohols. The conversion
rate of benzaldehyde increased as a function of the metal as Pt <
Rh < Pd (Cu was tested under different conditions). In contrast,
only Rh and Pt were active for hydrogenation of aromatic rings (Rh
was more active than Pt). In a comparison of the target functionalities,
carbonyl groups are more reactive than aromatic rings and ether bonds
in phenolic compounds and diaryl ethers on all of the explored metals.
This carbonyl reactivity, however, is enhanced by the aromaticity
of the molecule. Hence, the reactivity trend of the examined molecules
is butyraldehyde < furfural < acetophenone < benzaldehyde.
For phenolic compounds, phenol is more reactive than cresol and methoxyphenol.
Thus, the presence of substituent groups on the functionality being
converted (either carbonyl or aromatic ring) decreases the conversion
rate. Ether bonds are cleaved under electrocatalytic conditions, which
opens two main pathways for the conversion of aryl ethers: hydrogenation
of the aromatic ring and hydrogenolysis of the ether bonds, whereas
hydrolysis occurs as a minor pathway. Electrocatalytic hydrogenation
competes with the H2 evolution reaction under the conditions
of the tests, and therefore, the Faradaic efficiency (the fraction
of current utilized in hydrogenation) and hydrogenation rate are correlated.
That is, within the potential range explored, increasing hydrogenation
rates lead to higher Faradaic efficiencies. The slope of this correlation,
however, depends on the potential and on the functionality being hydrogenated.
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