A general paradigm in signal transduction is ligand-induced feedback inhibition and the desensitization of signaling. We found that subthreshold concentrations of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), which did not activate macrophages, increased their sensitivity to subsequent IFN-gamma stimulation; this resulted in increased signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) activation and increased IFN-gamma#150;dependent gene activation. Sensitization of IFN-gamma signaling was mediated by the induction of STAT1 expression by low doses of IFN-gamma that did not effectively induce feedback inhibition. IFN-gamma signaling was sensitized in vivo after IFN-gamma injection, and STAT1 expression was increased after injection of lipopolysaccharide and in rheumatoid arthritis synovial cells. These results identify a mechanism that sensitizes macrophages to low concentrations of IFN-gamma and regulates IFN-gamma responses in acute and chronic inflammation.

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Vascular system function involves complex interactions among the vascular endothelium, smooth muscle, the immune system, and the nervous system. The toxic metals cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), and lead (Pb) can target the vascular system in a variety of ways, ranging from hemorrhagic injury to subtle pathogenic remodeling and metabolic changes. Acute Cd exposure results in hemorrhagic injury to the testis, although some strains of animals are resistant to this effect. A comparison of Cd-sensitive with Cd-resistant mouse strains showed that expression of the Slc39a8 gene, encoding the ZIP8 transporter, in the testis vasculature endothelium is responsible for this difference. Endogenously, ZIP8 is a Mn(2+)/HCO(3)(-)symporter that may also contribute to Cd damage in the kidney. Chronic Cd exposure is associated with various cardiovascular disorders such as hypertension and cardiomyopathy and it is reported to have both carcinogenic and anticarcinogenic activities. At noncytotoxic concentrations of 10-100nM, Cd can inhibit chemotaxis and tube formation of vascular endothelial cells. These angiostatic effects may be mediated through disruption of vascular endothelial cadherin, a Ca(2+)-dependent cell adhesion molecule. With regard to As, ingestion of water containing disease-promoting concentrations of As promotes capillarization of the liver sinusoidal endothelium. Because capillarization is a hallmark precursor for liver fibrosis and contributes to an imbalance of lipid metabolism, this As effect on hepatic endothelial cells may be a pathogenic mechanism underlying As-related vascular diseases. With regard to Pb, perinatal exposure may cause sustained elevations in adult blood pressure, and genetically susceptible animals may show enhanced sensitivity to this effect. Taken together, these data indicate that the vascular system is a critical target of metal toxicity and that actions of metals on the vascular system may play important roles in mediating the pathophysiologic effects of metals in specific target organs.

Abstract-In this study, we investigated the effects of migration inhibitory factor (rhMIF) on angiogenesis-related signaling cascades and apoptosis in human endothelial cells (ECs). We show that in vitro rhMIF induces migration and tube formation in Matrigel of human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HMVECs), with potency comparable to that of basic fibroblast growth factor. In vivo, rhMIF induces angiogenesis in Matrigel plugs and in the corneal bioassay. Using panels of relatively specific kinase inhibitors, antisense oligonucleotides, and dominant-negative mutants, we show that mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) are critical for MIF-dependent HMVEC migration, whereas Src and p38 kinases are nonessential. Moreover, we demonstrate that rhMIF induces time-dependent increases in phosphorylation levels of MEK1/2, Erk1/2, and Elk-1, as well as PI3K, and its effector kinase, Akt, in HMVECs. Studies with dominant-negative mutants and antisense oligonucleotides corroborate these effects in HMVECs. Furthermore, we demonstrate that rhMIF-induced angiogenesis in the rat cornea in vivo and in the ex vivo endothelial cell morphogenesis assay is also MAPK-and PI3K-dependent. Our findings support a role for MIF as an angiogenic factor and provide a rationale for the use of MIF as a therapeutic inducer of neovascularization in the development of collateral circulation in coronary artery disease. Angiogenesis is a hallmark of diverse pathological conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. 3 Angiogenesis is triggered by a number of mediators and chemokines including interleukin (IL)-8. 4 MIF is required for tumor-initiated endothelial cell proliferation and tumor neovascularization: anti-MIF inhibits tumor growth and tumor-associated angiogenesis. 5,6 MIF is found in human vascular endothelial cells (ECs), which are thought to play a pivotal role in systemic inflammatory and immune disorders by producing cytokines and growth factors. 7 Although the critical role of angiogenesis in these disorders has been demonstrated, the signaling cascades that mediate the angiogenic effects of most growth factors and cytokines are not fully understood.Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and its downstream target, the serine-threonine kinase, Akt, are implicated in a number of cellular functions such as cell adhesion, cell survival, and angiogenesis. 8,9 MEK1 and MEK2, the activators of MAP or Erk kinases, are dual-specificity proteins that form part of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway controlling cell growth and differentiation. 10 We investigated the mechanism by which MIF induces angiogenesis and its protective role against EC apoptosis. We found that MIF is a chemoattractant for ECs and its chemotactic effect is comparable to that of a potent inducer of angiogenesis, basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF). MIF induces EC morphogenesis in Matrigel in vitro and angiogenesis in vivo, both in the Matrigel plug and corneal angiogenesis assay. MIF-induced chemotaxis ...