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Growing evidence suggests that tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) promote cancer progression and therapeutic resistance by enhancing angiogenesis, matrix-remodeling and immunosuppression. In this study prostate cancer (PCa) under androgen blockade therapy (ABT) was investigated, demonstrating that TAMs contribute to PCa disease recurrence through paracrine signaling processes. ABT induced the tumor cells to express macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 (M-CSF-1 or CSF-1) and other cytokines that recruit and modulate macrophages, causing a significant increase in TAM infiltration. Inhibitors of CSF-1 signaling through its receptor, CSF-1R, were tested in combination with ABT, demonstrating that blockade of TAM influx in this setting disrupts tumor promotion and sustains a more durable therapeutic response compared to ABT alone.

Lymph node involvement denotes a poor outcome for patients with prostate cancer. Our group, along with others, has shown that initial tumor cell dissemination to regional lymph nodes via lymphatics also promotes systemic metastasis in mouse models. The aim of this study was to investigate the efficacy of suppressive therapies targeting either the angiogenic or lymphangiogenic axis in inhibiting regional lymph node and systemic metastasis in subcutaneous and orthotopic prostate tumor xenografts. Both androgen-dependent and more aggressive androgen-independent prostate tumors were used in our investigations. Interestingly, we observed that the threshold for dissemination is lower in the vascular-rich prostatic microenvironment compared with subcutaneously grafted tumors. Both vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) ligand trap (sVEGFR-3) and antibody directed against VEGFR-3 (mF4-31C1) significantly reduced tumor lymphangiogenesis and metastasis to regional lymph nodes and distal vital organs without influencing tumor growth. Conversely, angiogenic blockade by short hairpin RNA against VEGF or anti-VEGFR-2 antibody (DC101) reduced tumor blood vessel density, significantly delayed tumor growth, and reduced systemic metastasis, although it was ineffective in reducing lymphangiogenesis or nodal metastasis. Collectively, these data clarify the utility of vascular therapeutics in prostate tumor growth and metastasis, particularly in the context of the prostate microenvironment. Our findings highlight the importance of lymphangiogenic therapies in the control of regional lymph node and systemic metastasis.

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) in humans arises spontaneously in genetically susceptible individuals and is associated with the presence of Th1 cells in the liver. The understanding of AIH has advanced more slowly than that of other organ-specific autoimmune diseases, however, largely because of the lack of an appropriate animal model. We now describe a new mouse model characterized by spontaneous development of necroinflammatory hepatitis that is restricted by genetic background. Mice deficient in the immunomodulatory cytokine TGF-β1 were extensively back-bred to the BALB/c background. The BALB/c background dramatically modified the phenotype of TGF-β1−/− mice: specifically, BALB/c-TGF-β1−/− mice developed a lethal necroinflammatory hepatitis that was not observed in TGF-β1−/− mice on a different genetic background. BALB/c background TGF-β1−/− livers contained large numbers of activated CD4+ T cells that produced large quantities of IFN-γ, but little IL-4, identifying them as Th1 cells. BALB/c background TGF-β1−/−/IFN-γ−/− double knockout mice, generated by cross-breeding, did not develop necroinflammatory hepatitis, demonstrating that IFN-γ is mechanistically required for its pathogenesis. This represents the first murine model of hepatitis that develops spontaneously, is restricted by genetic background, and is dependent upon the Th1 cytokine IFN-γ, and that thus recapitulates these important aspects of AIH.

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