A multi-faceted research project was conducted on a modular green roof in semi-arid, high elevation Denver, Colorado U.S.A. A photovoltaic (PV) array ran along the southeastern edge of the research area and visibly influenced the plant growth, cover and biomass. Plants grown near the PV prospered compared to plants in the exposed area. Average summer temperatures in the modules under the PV array were cooler with less temperature variation compared to the modules located in the exposed areas of the green roof. Shading structures integrated on green roofs may produce effects that resemble natural ecotones tending towards greater plant coverage and biomass, and therefore greater green roof resilience.
Six different preemergence herbicides were used with eight different plant species to evaluate weed control efficacy and possible phytotoxicity. The species used were Stachys byzantina C. Koch (lamb's ears), Campanula persicifolia L. (peachleaf bellflower), Achillea millefolium L. ‘Summer Pastel’ (common yarrow), Coreopsis lanceolata L. (Lance coreopsis), Gypsophila pacifica Kom. (baby's breath), Wisteria sinensis Sims (Chinese wisteria), Syringa vulgaris L. (common lilac), Phlox paniculata L. (perennial phlox), Dahlia Cav. x hybrida (garden dahlia). Herbicides were applied to the soil surface at rates of lx and 2x as recommended by the label. The herbicides and rates were as follows: Pennant (Dual) 7.8 Liquid, 4.6, 9.1 kg ai/ha (4, 8 lb ai/A); Gallery 75DF, 1.1, 2.3 kg ai/ha (1, 2 lb ai/A); Ronstar 2G, 4.5, 9.0 kg ai/ha (4, 8 lb ai/A); Rout 3G, 3.4, 6.8, 13.6 kg ai/ha (3, 6, 12 lb ai/A); Surflan AS, 2.3, 4.6 kg ai/ha (2, 4 lb ai/A); and Treflan 5G, 4.5, 9.0 kg ai/ha (4, 8 lbs ai/A). Weed seeds of Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv. (yellow foxtail), Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv. (barnyardgrass), Poa annua L. (annual bluegrass), Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. (shepherdspurse), Senecio vulgaris L. (common groundsel), and Amaranthus retroflexus L. (redroot pigweed) were sown on the soil surface. Two control treatments (no herbicide and no weed seeds applied, or no herbicide but with weed seeds) also were evaluated. Plants were grown in #1 black plastic containers in a medium of clay loam soil, plaster sand and sphagnum peat (1:1:2 by vol). Weed counts at the end of the season indicated that weed control was variable according to the herbicide used. Rout and Ronstar at both the lx and 2x rates controlled over 99% of the weeds (compared to the control treatment with weeds). Weed control for the other herbicides were as follows: Surflan lx = 92%, Surflan 2x = 95%, Pennant lx = 93%, Pennant 2x = 98%, Gallery lx = 35%, Gallery 2x = 43%, Treflan 1x = 88%, and Treflan 2x = 96%. Evaluations also indicated that herbicides utilizing oryzalin resulted in phytoxicity or stunting to Phlox (appearance declined 88% at the 1x rate and 93% at the 2x rate compared to the control treatment), Gypsophila (dry weights for Surflan 1x was 27% less and Surflan 2x was 39% less compared to the control treatment), and Stachys (appearance declined 55% for 1x rate and 60% at the 2x rate). Gallery (isoxaben) resulted in stunting in Stachys (dry weights for Gallery 1x were 75% less compared to control plants and Gallery 2x was 80% less).
Recycled wastewater (RWW) has become a common water source for irrigating golf courses and urban landscapes. Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) is commonly used in urban landscape settings in the Rocky Mountain West. To evaluate the effects of RWW irrigation on quality and needle ion accumulations of ponderosa pine, eight landscape facilities near metropolitan Denver, CO, were selected for the experiment. Among these sites, four had been irrigated exclusively with domestic RWW [electrical conductivity (EC) = 0.84 dS/m] for 5, 6, 15, and 20 years, respectively. The other four with similar turf species, age ranges, and soil textures had been irrigated with surface water (EC = 0.23 dS/m). Ponderosa pines grown on sites irrigated with RWW exhibited 10 times higher needle burn symptoms than those grown on sites irrigated with surface water (33% vs. 3%). Tissue analysis indicated that ponderosa pine needles collected from sites receiving RWW exhibited 11 times greater Na+ concentration, 2 times greater Cl−, and 50% greater B concentrations than samples collected from the control sites. Stepwise regression analysis revealed that the level of needle burn was largely influenced by leaf tissue Na+ concentration. Tissue Ca level and K/Na ratio were negatively associated with needle burn symptoms, suggesting that calcium amendment and K addition may help mitigate the needle burn syndrome in ponderosa pine caused by high Na+ in the tissue.
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