Although many scholars believe that intrinsic motivation fuels creativity, research has returned equivocal results. Drawing on motivated information processing theory, we propose that the relationship between intrinsic motivation and creativity is enhanced by other-focused psychological processes. Perspective taking, as generated by prosocial motivation, encourages employees to develop ideas that are useful as well as novel. In three studies, using both field and lab data, we found that prosocial motivation strengthened the association between intrinsic motivation and independent creativity ratings. In our second and third studies, perspective taking mediated this moderating effect. We discuss theoretical implications for creativity and motivation.

In management research, theory testing confronts a paradox described by Meehl in which designing studies with greater methodological rigor puts theories at less risk of falsification. This paradox exists because most management theories make predictions that are merely directional, such as stating that two variables will be positively or negatively related. As methodological rigor increases, the probability that an estimated effect will differ from zero likewise increases, and the likelihood of finding support for a directional prediction boils down to a coin toss. This paradox can be resolved by developing theories with greater precision, such that their propositions predict something more meaningful than deviations from zero. This article evaluates the precision of theories in management research, offers guidelines for making theories more precise, and discusses ways to overcome barriers to the pursuit of theoretical precision. Keywords philosophy of science, quantitative research, theory developmentTheory testing in management research faces a paradox that confronts many social sciences. This paradox was articulated by Meehl (1967Meehl ( , 1978, who noted that in the hard sciences, such as physics and chemistry, improvements in research design lead to stronger tests of theories, subjecting them to increased risk of falsification. This phenomenon occurs because theories in the hard sciences can produce hypotheses that translate into predictions expressed as point values. As research designs become stronger (e.g., sample sizes are larger, measures have less error), estimates of point values have tighter confidence intervals, which increases the likelihood that hypotheses will be rejected. Hypotheses that survive these increasingly stringent conditions provide stronger corroboration of theories.In the soft sciences, such as management, stronger research designs yield weaker tests of theories. This paradox arises because theories in the soft sciences usually express predictions not as point values, but as directional statements, such as a positive or negative relationship between two variables. These predictions are tested by constructing a confidence interval not around some value predicted by the theory but instead around a null value indicating no effect. As research designs become stronger, confidence intervals around the null value become smaller, and the likelihood of concluding that the estimated effect falls on the predicted side of the null value approaches .50. To illustrate, suppose a theory predicts a positive relationship between two variables, and this prediction is tested with a sample of 380 cases and a p value of .05. Using a conventional two-tailed test, any correlation greater than .10 would be taken as support for the hypothesis. If a one-tailed test were used, taking into account the direction of the hypotheses, only 270 cases would be required to declare a correlation greater than .10 significant at p < .05. Hypotheses that accommodate such a broad range of values confront low hurdle...

Background and objective: Hypercapnia is associated with worse clinical outcomes in exacerbations of COPD. The present study aimed to determine the effects of nasal high flow (NHF) therapy on transcutaneous partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PtCO 2 ) in stable COPD patients. Methods: In a single-blind randomized controlled crossover trial, 48 participants with COPD were allocated in random order to all of four 20 min interventions: NHF at 15 L/min, 30 L/min and 45 L/min or breathing room air with each intervention followed by a washout period of 15 min. The primary outcome measure was PtCO 2 at 20 min, adjusted for baseline PtCO 2 . Secondary outcomes included respiratory rate at 20 min, adjusted for baseline. Results: The mean (95% CI) change in PtCO 2 at 20 min was −0.6 mm Hg (−1.1 to 0.0), P = 0.06; −1.3 mm Hg (−1.9 to 0.8), P < 0.001; and −2.4 mm Hg (−2.9 to −1.8), P < 0.001; for NHF at 15 L/min, 30 L/min and 45 L/min compared with room air, respectively. The mean (95% CI) change in respiratory rate at 20 min was −1.5 (−2.7 to −0.3), P = 0.02; −4.1 (−5.3 to −2.9), P < 0.001; and −4.3 (−5.5 to −3.1), P < 0.001; breaths per minute compared with room air, respectively. Conclusion: NHF results in a small flow-dependent reduction in PtCO 2 and respiratory rate in patients with stable COPD.

THE present study of endemic cretinism is based on an analysis of 203 cases of the disease, comprising the total cretinous population of the Gilgit and Mastuj districts. These districts extend over an area of about 500 miles of Himalayan country. The cases have been collected by a house-to-house examination of almost every goitrous village in the district, so that few examples of the disease have escaped my observation. At the outset I should, perhaps, direct attention to the fact that the observations to be detailed and the conclusions to be drawn refer only to cretinism as prevailing among the Chitrali and Gilgiti races.

Context:Cutaneous infections are common in wrestlers. Although many are simply a nuisance in the everyday population, they can be problematic to wrestlers because such infections may result in disqualification from practice or competition. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are therefore important.Evidence Acquisition:Medline and PubMed databases, the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and UpToDate were searched through 2012 with the following keywords in various combinations: skin infections, cutaneous infections, wrestlers, athletes, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, skin and soft tissue infections, tinea corporis, tinea capitis, herpes simplex, varicella zoster, molluscum contagiosum, verruca vulgaris, warts, scabies, and pediculosis. Relevant articles found in the primary search, and selected references from those articles were reviewed for pertinent clinical information.Results:The most commonly reported cutaneous infections in wrestlers are herpes simplex virus infections (herpes gladiatorum), bacterial skin and soft tissue infections, and dermatophyte infections (tinea gladiatorum). The clinical appearance of these infections can be different in wrestlers than in the community at large.Conclusion:For most cutaneous infections, diagnosis and management options in wrestlers are similar to those in the community at large. With atypical presentations, testing methods are recommended to confirm the diagnosis of herpes gladiatorum and tinea gladiatorum. There is evidence to support the use of prophylactic medications to prevent recurrence of herpes simplex virus and reduce the incidence of dermatophyte infections in wrestlers.

Creativity has long been defined in terms of novelty and usefulness. Surprisingly, however, there is relatively little agreement about the precise meaning of either dimension, the relationship between them, or the process through which they are produced. In this paper, we explore how novelty and usefulness have been used explicitly and implicitly in the creativity literature to reveal three ways to understand the definitional constructs. We propose that these three understandings give rise to distinct but interrelated forms of creativity: creativity as maximization, creativity as balance, and creativity as integration. Each form provides a different way of answering the question: what is creativity? We further theorize that the forms are shaped by the distal relations between novelty and usefulness, context, and process. Fundamentally, our theory suggests that developing a creative outcome for a distant alternative reality is a different form of creativity than developing an idea grounded in the present, so that as creators move through space and time, they also move through different forms of creativity. Our meta-theory furthers our understanding of creativity by revealing the centrality of usefulness in defining creativity; opening up the dynamics of the creative process; and highlighting interdependencies between ideas and context.

BackgroundIn exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, administration of high concentrations of oxygen may cause hypercapnia and increase mortality compared with oxygen titrated, if required, to achieve an oxygen saturation of 88–92%. Optimally titrated oxygen regimens require two components: titrated supplemental oxygen to achieve the target oxygen saturation and, if required, bronchodilators delivered by air-driven nebulisation. The effect of repeated air vs oxygen-driven bronchodilator nebulisation in acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is unknown. We aimed to compare the effects of air versus oxygen-driven bronchodilator nebulisation on arterial carbon dioxide tension in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.MethodsA parallel group double-blind randomised controlled trial in 90 hospital in-patients with an acute exacerbation of COPD. Participants were randomised to receive two 2.5 mg salbutamol nebulisers, both driven by air or oxygen at 8 L/min, each delivered over 15 min with a 5 min interval in-between. The primary outcome measure was the transcutaneous partial pressure of carbon dioxide at the end of the second nebulisation (35 min). The primary analysis used a mixed linear model with fixed effects of the baseline PtCO2, time, the randomised intervention, and a time by intervention interaction term; to estimate the difference between randomised treatments at 35 min. Analysis was by intention-to-treat.ResultsOxygen-driven nebulisation was terminated in one participant after 27 min when the PtCO2 rose by > 10 mmHg, a predefined safety criterion. The mean (standard deviation) change in PtCO2 at 35 min was 3.4 (1.9) mmHg and 0.1 (1.4) mmHg in the oxygen and air groups respectively, difference (95% confidence interval) 3.3 mmHg (2.7 to 3.9), p < 0.001. The proportion of patients with a PtCO2 change ≥4 mmHg during the intervention was 18/45 (40%) and 0/44 (0%) for oxygen and air groups respectively.ConclusionsOxygen-driven nebulisation leads to an increase in PtCO2 in exacerbations of COPD. We propose that air-driven bronchodilator nebulisation is preferable to oxygen-driven nebulisation in exacerbations of COPD.Trial registrationAustralian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry number ACTRN12615000389505. Registration confirmed on 28/4/15.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s12890-018-0720-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Management research places a great premium on theory development. Despite this emphasis, concerns have been expressed regarding the extent to which management theories are tested in empirical research. This article reviews evidence concerning the connections between theoretical and empirical management research and reports an investigation that examines the correspondence between the propositions presented in 20 highly cited theoretical articles and the hypotheses stated in 361 empirical articles that cite the theories. Results indicate that the vast majority of propositions in the cited theoretical articles are not translated into hypotheses in the citing empirical articles. This disconnect manifests a great divide between theoretical and empirical management research. Implications of these results are discussed, and potential solutions are offered.