It is increasingly clear that long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) regulate a variety biological responses, and that they do so by a diverse range of mechanisms. In the field of immunology, recent publications have shown widespread changes in the expression of lncRNAs during the activation of the innate immune response and T cell development, differentiation, and activation. These lncRNAs control important aspects of immunity such as production of inflammatory mediators, differentiation, and cell migration through regulating protein-protein interactions or via their ability to basepair with RNA and DNA. We review the current understanding of the mechanism of action of these immune-related lncRNAs, discuss their impact on physiological and pathological processes, and highlight important areas of inquiry at the intersection between immunology and lncRNA biology.

Early reports indicate that long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are novel regulators of biological responses. However, their role in the human innate immune response, which provides the initial defence against infection, is largely unexplored. To address this issue, here we characterize the long non-coding RNA transcriptome in primary human monocytes using RNA sequencing. We identify 76 enhancer RNAs (eRNAs), 40 canonical lncRNAs, 65 antisense lncRNAs and 35 regions of bidirectional transcription (RBT) that are differentially expressed in response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Crucially, we demonstrate that knockdown of nuclear-localized, NF-κB-regulated, eRNAs (IL1β-eRNA) and RBT (IL1β-RBT46) surrounding the IL1β locus, attenuates LPS-induced messenger RNA transcription and release of the proinflammatory mediators, IL1β and CXCL8. We predict that lncRNAs can be important regulators of the human innate immune response.

ObjectiveTo identify long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), including long intergenic noncoding RNAs (lincRNAs), antisense RNAs, and pseudogenes, associated with the inflammatory response in human primary osteoarthritis (OA) chondrocytes and to explore their expression and function in OA.MethodsOA cartilage was obtained from patients with hip or knee OA following joint replacement surgery. Non‐OA cartilage was obtained from postmortem donors and patients with fracture of the neck of the femur. Primary OA chondrocytes were isolated by collagenase digestion. LncRNA expression analysis was performed by RNA sequencing (RNAseq) and quantitative reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction. Modulation of lncRNA chondrocyte expression was achieved using LNA longRNA GapmeRs (Exiqon). Cytokine production was measured with Luminex.ResultsRNAseq identified 983 lncRNAs in primary human hip OA chondrocytes, 183 of which had not previously been identified. Following interleukin‐1β (IL‐1β) stimulation, we identified 125 lincRNAs that were differentially expressed. The lincRNA p50‐associated cyclooxygenase 2–extragenic RNA (PACER) and 2 novel chondrocyte inflammation–associated lincRNAs (CILinc01 and CILinc02) were differentially expressed in both knee and hip OA cartilage compared to non‐OA cartilage. In primary OA chondrocytes, these lincRNAs were rapidly and transiently induced in response to multiple proinflammatory cytokines. Knockdown of CILinc01 and CILinc02 expression in human chondrocytes significantly enhanced the IL‐1–stimulated secretion of proinflammatory cytokines.ConclusionThe inflammatory response in human OA chondrocytes is associated with widespread changes in the profile of lncRNAs, including PACER, CILinc01, and CILinc02. Differential expression of CILinc01 and CIinc02 in hip and knee OA cartilage, and their role in modulating cytokine production during the chondrocyte inflammatory response, suggest that they may play an important role in mediating inflammation‐driven cartilage degeneration in OA.

Genes encoding the histone H3 lysine 4 methyltransferases KMT2C and KMT2D are subject to deletion and mutation in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), where these lesions identify a group of patients with a more favorable prognosis. In this study, we demonstrate that low KMT2C and KMT2D expression in biopsies also defines better outcome groups, with median survivals of 15.9 versus 9.2 months (P ¼ 0.029) and 19.9 versus 11.8 months (P ¼ 0.001), respectively. Experiments with eight human pancreatic cell lines showed attenuated cell proliferation when these methyltransferases were depleted, suggesting that this improved outcome may reflect a cell-cycle block with diminished progression from G 0 -G 1 . RNA-seq analysis of PDAC cell lines following KMT2C or KMT2D knockdown identified 31 and 124 differentially expressed genes, respectively, with 19 genes in common. Gene-set enrichment analysis revealed significant downregulation of genes related to cell-cycle and growth. These data were corroborated independently by examining KMT2C/D

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Despite increasing evidence to indicate that long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are novel regulators of immunity, there has been no systematic attempt to identify and characterize the lncRNAs whose expression is changed following the induction of the innate immune response. To address this issue, we have employed next-generation sequencing data to determine the changes in the lncRNA profile in four human (monocytes, macrophages, epithelium, and chondrocytes) and four mouse cell types (RAW 264.7 macrophages, bone marrow-derived macrophages, peritoneal macrophages, and splenic dendritic cells) following exposure to the pro-inflammatory mediators, lipopolysaccharides (LPS), or interleukin-1β. We show differential expression of 204 human and 210 mouse lncRNAs, with positional analysis demonstrating correlation with immune-related genes. These lncRNAs are predominantly cell-type specific, composed of large regions of repeat sequences, and show poor evolutionary conservation. Comparison within the human and mouse sequences showed less than 1% sequence conservation, although we identified multiple conserved motifs. Of the 204 human lncRNAs, 21 overlapped with syntenic mouse lncRNAs, of which five were differentially expressed in both species. Among these syntenic lncRNA was IL7-AS (antisense), which was induced in multiple cell types and shown to regulate the production of the pro-inflammatory mediator interleukin-6 in both human and mouse cells. In summary, we have identified and characterized those lncRNAs that are differentially expressed following activation of the human and mouse innate immune responses and believe that these catalogs will provide the foundation for the future analysis of the role of lncRNAs in immune and inflammatory responses.

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While follicular lymphoma (FL) is exquisitely responsive to immuno-chemotherapy, many patients follow a relapsing remitting clinical course driven in part by a common precursor cell (CPC) population. Advances in next generation sequencing have provided valuable insights into the genetic landscape of FL and its clonal evolution in response to therapy, implicating perturbations of epigenetic regulators as a hallmark of the disease. Recurrent mutations of histone modifiers KMT2D, CREBBP, EP300, EZH2, ARIDIA, and linker histones are likely early events arising in the CPC pool, rendering epigenetic based therapies conceptually attractive for treatment of indolent and transformed FL. This review provides a synopsis of the main epigenetic aberrations and the current efforts in development and testing of epigenetic therapies in this B cell malignancy.