The emergence of a cryptocurrencies in the economic circulation is a challenge for legal systems. The response of a legal system depends on social, political and international determinants. The first attempts to understand cryptocurrencies usually concerns tax law, which, however, are related to the civilian understanding of the phenomenon. In the Polish legal system, we had a lack of regulation directly related to cryptocurrencies, which caused them to be strictly qualified as an instrument whose exchange for money was not exempt from VAT as Bitcoin was not classified as money. This situation has changed as a result of the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union, which has recognized Bitcoin as an alternative means of payment. Recently, new statutory regulations have been introduced in non-European legal systems, i.e. in Japan and Arizona, which regulate cryptocurrencies in a wider way. This allows us to propose classification of legal systems based on the relationship they have towards cryptocurrencies. StreszczeniePojawienie się w obrocie gospodarczym kryptowalut jest wyzwaniem dla systemów prawnych, których reakcja zależy od uwarunkowań społecznych, politycznych i międzynarodowych. Pierwsze próby ulokowania kryptowalut zwykle dotyczyły kwalifikacji podatkowej, która jednakże jest związana z cywilistycznym rozumieniem zjawiska. Na gruncie polskiego systemu prawnego do czynienia mieliśmy z brakiem regulacji wprost odnoszącej się do kryptowalut, który powodował ścisłe ich
The goal of this text is to pose hypotheses related to use of heuristics in the process of deciding cases related to pure economic loss and making laws governing liability for this phenomenon. Pure economic loss is a type of damage where the victim suffers only economically, i.e. there is no bodily harm of damage to property, and there is lack of contractual nexus between the victim and the tortfeasor. Pure economic loss is, in principle, not recoverable in the common law systems and, in principle, recoverable in civil law systems. Pure economic loss is a heterogenic category consisting of a variety of case types, here divided into (1) ricochet loss, (2) transferred loss, (3) loss induced by faulty information. Pure economic loss cases are usually more complex than physical injuries and consequential economic loss, as they may involve a loss of profits. This paper explores the use of heuristics in the process of deciding pure economic loss cases and in process of forming general norms related to them.
Efektywność prawa umów leży w centrum zainteresowania stron umowy, w szczególności w przypadku umów pomiędzy profesjonalistami. Pomimo tego, litera prawa rzadko odnosi się do efektywności jako kategorii prawnej. Organizacja i funkcjonowanie wymiaru sprawiedliwości wpływa na koszty transakcyjne stosunków umownych. Ten wpływ można podzielić na dwie szerokie kategorie, wpływ niestabilności lub rozbieżności w orzecznictwie i wpływ dostępu do wymiaru sprawiedliwości. Powszechnie uznaje się, że stabilność orzecznictwa wpływa pozytywnie na dostęp do wymiaru sprawiedliwości poprzez zmniejszanie pobudek do wytaczania powództw. Odmienny pogląd proponuje E. Posner w eksperymencie myślowym, w którym rażąco niekompetentne sądy mają mimo wszystko prowadzić do wykonania umowy przez strony – poprzez wywołanie w stronach umowy niechęci do procesu. W niniejszym tekście przeprowadzono polemikę z powyższym poglądem kwestionując zarówno jego założenia jak i jego wiarygodność w stosunku do obserwacji rzeczywistości.
The purpose of this text is to discuss the interpretation of the provisions on the payment service provider's obligation to refund regarding unauthorized payment transactions. The subject of the research are the provisions of the Payment Services Act implementing the PSD2 directive in Poland. As part of the research, the formal-dogmatic method was applied. The result of the research is to propose an interpretation of the provisions governing the obligation to return the amount of unauthorized payment transactions to the payer. As part of the results, it was found that, due to the purpose of the legislation, as indicated in its wording and the recitals of the Directive, the obligation to return will be borne by the payer's supplier in principle, except in the event of fraud, intent or gross negligence on the part of the payer. As regards the problem of the burden of proof, a derogation from the general rule resulting from the provisions of the Civil Code consists in shifting the burden of proving that the transaction has been authorized to the supplier.
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