To understand further the fragmentation of the hydrographical basins and the processes of divergence and speciation of freshwater fishes of the Iberian Peninsula, 10 populations of the Iberian endemic cyprinid Chondrostoma lemmingii were studied using 26 loci encoding 19 enzymes and the complete nucleotide sequence of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA markers showed complete congruence in assessing the genetic differentiation among the samples analysed. This congruence was supported by a Mantel test in which a significant correlation (r=0.89) between Nei's genetic distances and sequence divergence (uncorrected p distances) was obtained. Diagnostic loci, Nei's genetic distances, and FST values, as well as the percentage of sequence divergence indicate that the Duero basin population accumulates the highest level of genetic differentiation. A moderate divergence was also observed among populations of the rest of the basins. Phenetic and phylogenetic relationships support the hypothesis that the differentiation process was not only due to hydrographical basin isolation but also due to an ancient endorrheism event, previous to hydrographical configuration, that could explain the marked differentiation of the Duero basin population.

Mental health is not only the lack of mental disorders but is considered a crucial resource for overall health and well-being (including employment and productivity). The current paper tries to shed some light on the evolution of mental well-being over a period of 15 years, including the years before, during and after the most recent economic downturn. We use data coming from the Spanish National Health Surveys of 2006/2007, 2011/2012 and 2016/2017. Mental health is proxied by two measures, doctor-diagnosed mental disorder and psychological distress (based on GHQ-12). To account for the causal relationship between the two mental health indicators, we estimate a bivariate probit model. We observe different patterns of the two mental health indicators over time. Psychological distress increased during recession years, due to major risk factors as unemployment and loss of socioeconomic status. Even though the need for mental healthcare increased during the recession, the fact that fewer people were diagnosed suggests that barriers to access to mental healthcare may be aggravated during the crisis.

ResumenEl objetivo de esta investigación consiste en analizar si existe equidad en el acceso a los servicios sanitarios públicos por niveles socioeconómicos. se analiza conjuntamente la probabilidad de utilizar los servicios sanitarios y los tiempos de espera hasta ser atendidos, corrigiéndose así el sesgo de selección que se derivaría de su estudio separado, tal y como se evidencia en esta investigación. se propone una aproximación bayesiana y se hace uso de la información a nivel individual sobre la utilización sanitaria, tiempos de espera, nivel socioeconómico, necesidad sanitaria y otras variables sociodemográficas contenidas en la Encuesta nacional de salud (2006). Los resultados muestran que hay inequidad en el acceso a los servicios especializados y hospitalarios (tanto en utilización como en tiempos de espera) que perjudica a los niveles socioeconómicos inferiores. En los servicios de medicina general, si bien la utilización beneficia relativamente más a los grupos de menor nivel socioeconómico, los tiempos de espera perjudican a los de menor nivel educativo.Palabras clave: Equidad en acceso, utilización de servicios sanitarios, tiempos de espera, sesgo de selección, modelos bayesianos.Clasificación JEL: I1, C01, D39. Introducción¿Existe equidad en el acceso a los servicios del sistema sanitario público por niveles socioeconómicos? Esa es la pregunta que queremos responder en esta investigación con un en-* Esta investigación se deriva del proyecto de investigación ECO2012-36150 del Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad. Los autores agradecen al Ministerio el apoyo financiero. Agradecemos las sugerencias y comentarios de dos evaluadores anónimos. Cualquier error es de nuestra responsabilidad.

This paper describes the causes that generate the relatively high – among comparable OECD countries – prevalence of tobacco consumption in Spain. It evaluates the current policy interventions geared towards reducing incidence and prevalence. It argues that, despite a recent major breakthrough in legislation on advertising and consumption in public places, one of the major shortcomings of current policies is the lack of an effective fiscal policy. This lack of effectiveness is explained by some idiosyncrasies of the Spanish cigarette market that call for specific measures.

the introduction of the Law 42/2010 has had no impact on the levels of household consumption expenses on hospitality venues. Changes in consumption expenses could be explained by sociodemographic characteristics (such as the number of children per household) and the impact of the economic crisis (unemployment and a decrease in household income).

Migrants and refugees try to reach Europe to seek protection and a better life. The responsiveness and stewardship of the European countries health system have an impact on the ability to access healthcare. This study aims to investigate the differential probability of healthcare unmet needs among migrants living in four European countries. We used a 2019 cross-sectional data from the European Union Income and Living Conditions survey. We performed a two-stage probit model with sample selection, first to identify the respondents with need for care, then those who need it but have not received it. We analysed reasons for unmet needs through accessibility, availability and acceptability. We then performed country studies assessing the national health systems, financing mechanisms and migration policies. Bringing together data on financial hardship and unmet needs reveals that migrants living in Europe have a higher risk of facing unmet healthcare needs compared to native citizens, and affordability of care remains a substantial barrier. Our results showed the country heterogeneity in the differential migrants’ unmet needs according to the place where they live, and this disparity seems attributed to the health system and policies applied. Given the diversity of socioeconomic conditions throughout the European countries, the health of migrants depends to a large degree on the integration and health policies in place. We believe that EU policies should apply further efforts to respect core health and protection ethics and to acknowledge, among others, principles of ‘do-no-harm’, equity and the right to health.

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