The beneficial effects of probiotics have been described in many diseases, but the mechanism by which they modulate the immune system is poorly understood. In this study, we identified a mixture of probiotics that up-regulates CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs). Administration of the probiotics mixture induced both T-cell and B-cell hyporesponsiveness and down-regulated T helper (Th) 1, Th2, and Th17 cytokines without apoptosis induction. It also induced generation of CD4+Foxp3+ Tregs from the CD4+CD25− population and increased the suppressor activity of naturally occurring CD4+CD25+ Tregs. Conversion of T cells into Foxp3+ Tregs is directly mediated by regulatory dendritic cells (rDCs) that express high levels of IL-10, TGF-β, COX-2, and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase. Administration of probiotics had therapeutical effects in experimental inflammatory bowel disease, atopic dermatitis, and rheumatoid arthritis. The therapeutical effect of the probiotics is associated with enrichment of CD4+Foxp3+ Tregs in the inflamed regions. Collectively, the administration of probiotics that enhance the generation of rDCs and Tregs represents an applicable treatment of inflammatory immune disorders.

XBP1 is a key regulator of the unfolded protein response (UPR), which is involved in a wide range of physiological and pathological processes. XBP1 ablation in liver causes profound hypolipidemia in mice, highlighting its critical role in lipid metabolism. XBP1 deficiency triggers feedback activation of its upstream enzyme IRE1α, instigating regulated IRE1-dependent decay (RIDD) of cytosolic mRNAs. Here, we identify RIDD as a crucial control mechanism of lipid homeostasis. Suppression of RIDD by RNA interference or genetic ablation of IRE1α reversed hypolipidemia in XBP1 deficient mice. Comprehensive microarray analysis of XBP1 and/or IRE1α deficient liver identified genes involved in lipogenesis and lipoprotein metabolism as RIDD substrates, which might contribute to the suppression of plasma lipid levels by activated IRE1α. Ablation of XBP1 ameliorated hepatosteatosis, liver damage and hypercholesterolemia in dyslipidemic animal models, suggesting that direct targeting of either IRE1α or XBP1 might be a feasible strategy to treat dyslipidemias.

The liver is a central organ that controls systemic energy homeostasis and nutrient metabolism. Dietary carbohydrates and lipids, and fatty acids derived from adipose tissue are delivered to the liver, and utilized for gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis and ketogenesis, which are tightly regulated by hormonal and neural signals. Hepatic lipogenesis is activated primarily by insulin that is secreted from the pancreas after high carbohydrate meal. SREBP-1c and ChREBP are major transcriptional regulators that induce key lipogenic enzymes to promote lipogenesis in the liver. SREBP-1c is activated by insulin through complex signaling cascades that control SREBP-1c at both transcriptional and post-translational levels. ChREBP is activated by glucose independently of insulin. Here, we attempt to summarize our current understanding of the molecular mechanism for the transcriptional regulation of hepatic lipogenesis, focusing on recent studies that explore the signaling pathways controlling SREBPs and ChREBP.

Fat-specific protein 27 (Fsp27) is a lipid droplet-associated protein that promotes lipid droplet (LD) growth and triglyceride (TG) storage in white adipocytes. Fsp27 is also highly expressed in the steatotic liver and contributes to TG accumulation. In this study, we discovered that the liver produces Fsp27β, an alternative Fsp27 isoform, which contains 10 additional amino acids at the N-terminus of the original Fsp27 (Fsp27α). White adipose tissue (WAT) and the liver specifically expressed Fsp27α and Fsp27β transcripts, respectively, which were driven by distinct promoters. The Fsp27β promoter was activated by the liver-enriched transcription factor cyclic-AMP-responsive-element-binding protein H (CREBH) but not by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) which activated the Fsp27α promoter. Enforced expression of the constitutively active CREBH strongly induced Fsp27β and the human ortholog CIDEC2 in mouse hepatocytes and HepG2 cells, respectively. In contrast, loss of CREBH decreased hepatic Fsp27β in fasted mice, suggesting that CREBH plays a critical role in Fsp27β expression in the liver. Similar to Fsp27α, Fsp27β localized on the surface of lipid droplets and suppressed lipolysis. Consequently, enforced expression of Fsp27β or CREBH promoted lipid droplet enlargement and TG accumulation in the liver. Our study demonstrated that the CREBH-Fsp27β axis is important for regulating lipid droplet dynamics and TG storage in the liver.

Mice lacking the transcription factor XBP1 exhibit constitutive activation of the stress sensor IRE1α and are protected from acetaminophen overdose–induced acute liver failure.

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BackgroundCinnamomum cassia bark is the outer skin of an evergreen tall tree belonging to the family Lauraceae containing several active components such as essential oils (cinnamic aldehyde and cinnamyl aldehyde), tannin, mucus and carbohydrate. They have various biological functions including anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, anti-inflammation, anti-diabetic and anti-tumor activity. Previously, we have reported that anti-cancer effect of cinnamon extracts is associated with modulation of angiogenesis and effector function of CD8+ T cells. In this study, we further identified that anti-tumor effect of cinnamon extracts is also link with enhanced pro-apoptotic activity by inhibiting the activities NFκB and AP1 in mouse melanoma model.MethodsWater soluble cinnamon extract was obtained and quality of cinnamon extract was evaluated by HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography) analysis. In this study, we tested anti-tumor activity and elucidated action mechanism of cinnamon extract using various types of tumor cell lines including lymphoma, melanoma, cervix cancer and colorectal cancer in vitro and in vivo mouse melanoma model.ResultsCinnamon extract strongly inhibited tumor cell proliferation in vitro and induced active cell death of tumor cells by up-regulating pro-apoptotic molecules while inhibiting NFκB and AP1 activity and their target genes such as Bcl-2, BcL-xL and survivin. Oral administration of cinnamon extract in melanoma transplantation model significantly inhibited tumor growth with the same mechanism of action observed in vitro.ConclusionOur study suggests that anti-tumor effect of cinnamon extracts is directly linked with enhanced pro-apoptotic activity and inhibition of NFκB and AP1 activities and their target genes in vitro and in vivo mouse melanoma model. Hence, further elucidation of active components of cinnamon extract could lead to development of potent anti-tumor agent or complementary and alternative medicine for the treatment of diverse cancers.

Inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1) is a kinase and ribonuclease that executes the splicing of X box binding protein 1 (XBP-1) mRNA in response to the accumulation of unfolded protein in the ER, a signal cascade termed the unfolded protein response. Recently, IRE1 has been implicated in mRNA and miRNA cleavage and degradation, a pathway termed regulated IRE1-dependent decay (RIDD). Deletion of XBP-1 in the liver and pancreas strongly enhances RIDD by upregulating IRE1 protein levels and enhancing its ribonuclease activity. Because XBP-1 is essential for generating plasma cells with developed secretory capacity, we sought to evaluate the contribution of RIDD to this regulation. Mice were conditionally deleted for XBP-1 and/or IRE1 in their B-cell lineage. Similarly to the liver, deletion of XBP-1 induces IRE1 expression in LPS-treated B cells. In vitro, IRE1 cleaves the mRNA of secretory μ chains, which explains the reduction in secretory μ mRNA and its synthesis in XBP-1 KO plasma cells. In accordance, the IgM response is partially restored in XBP-1/IRE1 double KO mice relative to XBP-1 KO mice. Interestingly, the IgG1 response is reduced to a similar level in XBP-1 KO, IRE1 KO, and their double knockout animals. Our data demonstrate a specific contribution by RIDD in curtailing immunoglobulin synthesis and secretion.Keywords: ER stress r IRE1 r plasma cells r RIDD r UPR r XBP-1 See accompanying Commentary by van Anken et al.Additional supporting information may be found in the online version of this article at the publisher's web-site IntroductionThe unfolded protein response (UPR) is an adaptive signaling pathway elicited in response to perturbations in ER homeostasis, conditions referred to as ER stress. In the canonical mammalian UPR, three ER stress sensors operate in parallel: inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1), PKR-like ER kinase, and activating transcripCorrespondence: Dr. Boaz Tirosh e-mail: boazt@ekmd.huji.ac.il tion factor 6 (reviewed in [1]). Upon activation, each sensor arm executes a transcriptional program that is interconnected with the other UPR pathways for amplification and negative feedbacks. Thus, the outcome of the UPR is dependent on the relative contribution of the three arms and their threshold for activation. Much of the molecular details of UPR signaling were brought about using artificial induction with chemicals that robustly perturb protein folding in the ER, such as tunicamycin, thapsigargin, or DTT. Understanding of the UPR in a physiological setting, however, has been more challenging to elucidate.C 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.eji-journal.eu 868Sandrine Benhamron et al. Eur. J. Immunol. 2014. 44: 867-876 The first example for a physiological role of the UPR was described in the terminal differentiation of mature B cells into plasma cells (PCs), the latter are responsible for secretion of antibodies [2]. Mature B cells contain very little cytoplasm and intracellular membranes. When triggered by antigen in the context of accessory signals such as toll-lik...