Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered individuals are sexual and gender minorities subject to stigma in a heteronormative culture with binary gender role norms. Although much research has examined sexual stigma in the form of homophobia, or negative attitudes and reactions to homosexuals and homosexuality, little is known about the stigma experienced by transgendered individuals. Transgendered people are those whose gender identity (sense of oneself as a man or a woman) or gender expression (expression of oneself as a man or a woman in behavior, manner, and/or dress) differ from conventional expectations for their physical sex. Although a scale exists to measure transphobia or negative attitudes and reactions to transgendered individuals, it includes items tapping into overt behavioral expression of this stigma, or gender-bashing, and fails to identify or define transgendered persons as the attitudinal target of the items. A new scale was developed and evaluated in an effort to assess transgender-related stigma, separately from discrimination and violence, among members of the general population. Using two separate samples of college students ranging in age from 18-64 years, exploratory (N = 134) and confirmatory factor analyses (N = 237) were performed. The resulting 20-item, self-report measure demonstrated a single-factor structure, high internal consistency reliability, and evidence of convergent and discriminant construct validity.

Sexual minorities experience significant stigma and prejudice. Much research has examined sexual stigma and prejudice impacting gay and lesbian individuals, but limited research has examined other sexual minorities, such as transgender persons or individuals whose gender identity or expression is incongruent with their assigned gender or anatomical sex. Research has found that interpersonal contact with sexual minorities is associated with lower sexual stigma and prejudice. Intergroup contact theory predicts that interaction between groups can reduce stereotyping and improve intergroup relationships. Using a randomized crossover design, this study compared the impact of exposure to a transgender speaker panel vs. a traditional transgender lecture presentation on transphobia. Results indicated greater immediate reductions of transphobia following the transgender speaker panel than traditional lecture.In a largely heterosexual culture, individuals who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender (GLBT) represent sexual minorities. Heterosexism, a cultural ideology that defines heterosexuality as normal and natural and devalues any deviation from a heterosexual norm, promotes and perpetuates sexual stigma or "negative regard, inferior status, and relative powerlessness that society collectively accords to any nonheterosexual behavior, identity, relationship, or community" (Herek, 2007, p. 906).Herek (2007) argued that sexual stigma can manifest in three major forms: enacted stigma, felt stigma, and internalized stigma. Enacted stigma refers to the overt expression of stigma in behavioral form, such as name-calling, exclusion, rejection, and other forms of discrimination, including outright harassment and violence. Felt stigma refers to the experience of, or even the mere expectation of, enacted stigma by targets and potential targets of enacted sexual stigma. Internalized stigma refers to the incorporation of sexual stigma into one's personal value system. Among heterosexual

Guided by developmental and sociological frameworks, the present study investigated two interrelated research questions, namely, (a) is helicopter parenting (HP) a unidimensional or multidimensional construct and (b) is parental payment of college education associated with freshmen’s reports of HP? Participants (58% female) included 190 first-semester freshmen (70% Caucasian) who completed a survey with items on parenting (proportion of parental payment for college education, HP behaviors). Results indicated HP was a singular form of overinvolvement and that most freshmen reported low levels of HP. As hypothesized, parental payment of college education was positively associated with HP, and this association was strongest among freshmen without a scholarship. Challenges to the popularized perception that most parents of college students are overinvolved, and implications regarding educational expenses linking parents and emerging adults in the college context are discussed.

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