Bcl-2 family proteins regulate a critical step in apoptosis referred to as mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP). Members of a subgroup of the Bcl-2 family, known as the BH3-only proteins, activate pro-apoptotic effectors (Bax and Bak) to initiate MOMP. They do so by neutralizing pro-survival Bcl-2 proteins and/or directly activating Bax/ Bak. Bim and Bid are reported to be direct activators; however, here we show that BH3 peptides other than Bim and Bid exhibited various degrees of direct activation of the effector Bax or Bak, including Bmf and Noxa BH3s. In the absence of potent direct activators, such as Bim and Bid, we unmasked novel direct activator BH3 ligands capable of inducing effector-mediated cytochrome c release and liposome permeabilization, even when both Bcl-xL-and Mcl-1-type anti-apoptotic proteins were inhibited. The ability of these weaker direct activator BH3 peptides to cause MOMP correlated with that of the corresponding full-length proteins to induce apoptosis in the absence of Bim and Bid. We propose that, in certain contexts, direct activation by BH3-only proteins other than Bim and Bid may significantly contribute to MOMP and apoptosis.Regulation of mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) 4 is one of the most critical steps in apoptosis pathways, as the release of apoptogenic proteins from the mitochondrial intermembrane space commits the cell to death, either by a caspase-dependent or -independent mechanism (1, 2). Bcl-2 family proteins regulate MOMP (3-5), and the molecular mechanisms underlying MOMP have been a focus of intensive studies. The Bcl-2 family comprises both pro-and anti-apoptotic members. The pro-apoptotic members are divided into multidomain (Bax, Bak, and perhaps Bok in a limited number of tissues) and BH3 domain-only members (Bim, Bid, Bad, Bik, Bmf, Hrk, Puma, Noxa etc.) (5). Loss-of-function studies have established that the multidomain pro-apoptotic members, Bax and Bak, are the effectors of MOMP (6, 7), and that the BH3-only proteins effect the activation of Bax and Bak. To initiate MOMP, Bax, and Bak change their conformation (8 -12) and form homo-oligomers in the membrane (11-16). These events are referred to as Bax/Bak (for Bax and/or Bak) activation. As a consequence of this activation, the membrane is permeabilized and apoptogenic molecules are released from the intermembrane space.The neutralization model postulates that Bax and Bak are activated, when they are liberated from anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins by BH3-only proteins (17, 18), whereas the direct activation model posits that, in addition to inhibiting prosurvival proteins, select BH3-only proteins must directly activate Bax/Bak (19 -21). It has also been shown that certain BH3-only proteins displace activator BH3-only proteins (Bim, cleaved Bid or Puma in some instances) from anti-apoptotic proteins, which will then directly activate Bax/Bak. We investigated the membrane permeabilization by Bcl-2 family proteins in a defined liposome system, using BH3 peptides (13,22). It...
We report improved strain and bioprocess robustness as a result of the dynamic deregulation of central metabolism using two-stage dynamic control. Dynamic control is implemented using combinations of CRISPR interference and controlled proteolysis to reduce levels of central metabolic enzymes in the context of a standardized two-stage bioprocesses. Reducing the levels of key enzymes alters metabolite pools resulting in deregulation of the metabolic network. The deregulated network is more robust to environmental conditions improving process robustness, which in turn leads to predictable scalability from high throughput small scale screens to fully instrumented bioreactors as well as to pilot scale production. Additionally, as these two-stage bioprocesses are standardized, a need for traditional process optimization is minimized. Predictive high throughput approaches that translate to larger scales are critical for metabolic engineering programs to truly take advantage of the rapidly increasing throughput and decreasing costs of synthetic biology. In this work we demonstrate that the improved robustness of E. coli strains engineered for the improved scalability of the important industrial chemicals alanine, citramalate and xylitol, from microtiter plates to pilot reactors.
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