Tendon healing is a complex coordinated series of events resulting in protracted recovery, limited regeneration, and scar formation. Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) therapy has shown promise as a new technology to enhance soft tissue and bone healing. A challenge with MSC therapy involves the ability to consistently control the inflammatory response and subsequent healing. Previous studies suggest that preconditioning MSCs with inflammatory cytokines, such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-1β may accelerate cutaneous wound closure. The objective of this study was to therefore elucidate these effects in tendon. That is, the in vivo healing effects of TNF-α primed MSCs were studied using a rat Achilles segmental defect model. Rat Achilles tendons were subjected to a unilateral 3 mm segmental defect and repaired with either a PLG scaffold alone, MSC-seeded PLG scaffold, or TNF-α-primed MSC-seeded PLG scaffold. Achilles tendons were analyzed at 2 and 4 weeks post-injury. In vivo, MSCs, regardless of priming, increased IL-10 production and reduced the inflammatory factor, IL-1α. Primed MSCs reduced IL-12 production and the number of M1 macrophages, as well as increased the percent of M2 macrophages, and synthesis of the anti-inflammatory factor IL-4. Primed MSC treatment also increased the concentration of type I procollagen in the healing tissue and increased failure stress of the tendon 4 weeks post-injury. Taken together delivery of TNF-α primed MSCs via 3D PLG scaffold modulated macrophage polarization and cytokine production to further accentuate the more regenerative MSC-induced healing response. © 2016 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 35:269-280, 2017.
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have potential therapeutic applications for musculoskeletal injuries due to their ability to differentiate into several tissue cell types and modulate immune and inflammatory responses. These immune-modulatory properties were examined in vivo during early stage rat medial collateral ligament healing. Two different cell doses (low dose 1×106 or high dose 4×106 MSCs) were administered at the time of injury and compared with normal ligament healing at days 5 and 14 post-injury. At both times, the high dose MSC group demonstrated a significant decrease in M2 macrophages compared to controls. At day 14, fewer M1 macrophages were detected in the low dose group compared to the high dose group. These results, along with significant changes in procollagen I, proliferating cells, and endothelialization suggest that MSCs can alter the cellular response during healing in a dose-dependent manner. The higher dose ligaments also had increased expression of several pro-inflammatory cytokines at day 5 (IL-1β, IFNγ, IL-2) and increased expression of IL-12 at day 14. Mechanical testing at day 14 revealed increased failure strength and stiffness in low dose ligaments compared to controls. Based on these improved mechanical properties, MSCs enhanced functional healing when applied at a lower dose. Different doses of MSCs uniquely affected the cellular response and cytokine expression in healing ligaments. Interestingly, the lower dose of cells proved to be most effective in improving functional properties.
The mechanical effect of a partial thickness tear or laceration of a tendon is analytically modeled under various assumptions and results are compared with previous experimental data from porcine flexor tendons. Among several fibril-level models considered, a shearlag model that incorporates fibril-matrix interaction and a fibril-fibril interaction defined by the contact area of the interposed matrix best matched published data for tendons with shallow cuts (less than 50% of the cross-sectional area). Application of this model to the case of many disrupted fibrils is based on linear superposition and is most successful when more fibrils are incorporated into the model. An equally distributed load sharing model for the fraction of remaining intact fibrils was inadequate in that it overestimates the strength for a cut less than half of the tendon's cross-sectional area. In a broader sense, results imply that shear-lag contributes significantly to the general mechanical behavior of tendons when axial loads are nonuniformly distributed over a cross section, although the predominant hierarchical level and microstructural mediators for this behavior require further inquiry.
Background Tendon is an integral part of joint movement and stability, as it functions to transmit load from muscle to bone. It has an anisotropic, fibrous hierarchical structure that is generally loaded in the direction of its fibers/fascicles. Internal load distributions are altered when joint motion rotates an insertion site or when local damage disrupts fibers/fascicles, potentially causing inter-fiber (or inter-fascicular) shear. Tendons with different microstructure (helical versus linear) may redistribute loads differently. Method of Approach This study explored how shear redistributes axial loads in rat tail tendon (low stress tendons with linear microstructure) and porcine flexor tendon (high stress with helical microstructure) by creating lacerations on opposite sides of the tendon, ranging from about 20-60% of the tendon width, to create various magnitudes of shear. Differences in fascicular orientation were quantified using polarized light microscopy. Results and Conclusions Unexpectedly, both tendon types maintained about 20% of pre-laceration stress values after overlapping cuts of 60% of tendon width (no intact fibers end to end) suggesting that shear stress transfer can contribute more to overall tendon strength and stiffness than previously reported. All structural parameters for both tendon types decreased linearly with increasing laceration depth. The tail tendon had a more rapid decline in post-laceration elastic stress and modulus parameters as well as a more linear and less tightly packed fascicular structure, suggesting that positional tendons may be less well suited to redistribute loads via a shear mechanism.
Tendon is vital to musculoskeletal function, transferring loads from muscle to bone for joint motion and stability. It is an anisotropic, highly organized, fibrous structure containing primarily type I collagen in addition to tenocytes and other extracellular matrix components contributing to maintenance and function. Tendon is generally loaded via normal stress in a longitudinal direction. However, certain situations, including fiber breakage, enzymatic remodeling, or tendon pathology may introduce various degrees of other loading modalities, such as shear-lag at the fiber level, potentially affecting cellular response and subsequent function. Fascicles from rat tail tendon were dissected and placed in one of three paired groups: intact, single laceration, or double laceration. Each pair had a mechanically tested and control specimen. Single laceration fascicles contained one transverse laceration to mimic a partial tear. Double laceration fascicles had overlapping, longitudinally separated lacerations on opposite sides to cause intra-fascicular shear transfer to be the primary mechanism of loading. Elastic properties of the fascicle, e.g. peak load, steady state load, and stiffness, decreased from intact to single laceration to double laceration groups. Surprisingly, 45% of the intact strength was maintained when shear was the primary internal load transfer mechanism. Cellular viability decreased after mechanical testing in both laceration groups; cell death appeared primarily in a longitudinal plane where high shear load transfer occurred. This cell death extended far from the injury site and may further compromise an already damaged tendon via enzymatic factors and subsequent remodeling associated with cell necrosis.
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