The intermediate phases of planet formation are not directly observable due to lack of emission from planetesimals. Planet formation is, however, a dynamically active process resulting in collisions between the evolving planetesimals and the production of dust. Thus, indirect observation of planet formation may indeed be possible in the near future. In this paper we present synthetic observations based on numerical N-body simulations of the intermediate phase of planet formation including a state-of-the-art collision model, EDACM, which allows multiple collision outcomes, such as, accretion, erosion, and bouncing events. We show that the formation of planetary embryos may be indirectly observable by a fully functioning ALMA telescope if the surface area involved in planetesimal evolution is sufficiently large and/or the amount of dust produced in the collisions is sufficiently high in mass.
We present a reanalysis (using the Minnaert limb‐darkening approximation) of visible/near‐infrared (0.3–2.5 μm) observations of Uranus and Neptune made by several instruments. We find a common model of the vertical aerosol distribution i.e., consistent with the observed reflectivity spectra of both planets, consisting of: (a) a deep aerosol layer with a base pressure >5–7 bar, assumed to be composed of a mixture of H2S ice and photochemical haze; (b) a layer of photochemical haze/ice, coincident with a layer of high static stability at the methane condensation level at 1–2 bar; and (c) an extended layer of photochemical haze, likely mostly of the same composition as the 1–2‐bar layer, extending from this level up through to the stratosphere, where the photochemical haze particles are thought to be produced. For Neptune, we find that we also need to add a thin layer of micron‐sized methane ice particles at ∼0.2 bar to explain the enhanced reflection at longer methane‐absorbing wavelengths. We suggest that methane condensing onto the haze particles at the base of the 1–2‐bar aerosol layer forms ice/haze particles that grow very quickly to large size and immediately “snow out” (as predicted by Carlson et al. (1988), https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1988)045%3C2066:CMOTGP%3E2.0.CO;2), re‐evaporating at deeper levels to release their core haze particles to act as condensation nuclei for H2S ice formation. In addition, we find that the spectral characteristics of “dark spots”, such as the Voyager‐2/ISS Great Dark Spot and the HST/WFC3 NDS‐2018, are well modelled by a darkening or possibly clearing of the deep aerosol layer only.
Transitional and pre-transitional disks can be explained by a number of mechanisms. This work aims to find a single observationally detectable marker that would imply a planetary origin for the gap and, therefore, indirectly indicate the presence of a young planet. N-body simulations were conducted to investigate the effect of an embedded planet of one Jupiter mass on the production of instantaneous collisional dust derived from a background planetesimal disk. Our new model allows us to predict the dust distribution and resulting observable markers with greater accuracy than previous work. Dynamical influences from a planet on a circular orbit are shown to enhance dust production in the disk interior and exterior to the planet orbit while removing planetesimals from the the orbit itself creating a clearly defined gap. In the case of an eccentric planet the gap opened by the planet is not as clear as the circular case but there is a detectable asymmetry in the dust disk. Subject headings: protoplanetary disks-planet-disk interactions
Observations of the youngest planets (∼1-10 Myr for a transitional disk) will increase the accuracy of our planet formation models. Unfortunately, observations of such planets are challenging and time-consuming to undertake, even in ideal circumstances. Therefore, we propose the determination of a set of markers that can preselect promising exoplanet-hosting candidate disks. To this end, N-body simulations were conducted to investigate the effect of an embedded Jupiter-mass planet on the dynamics of the surrounding planetesimal disk and the resulting creation of second-generation collisional dust. We use a new collision model that allows fragmentation and erosion of planetesimals, and dust-sized fragments are simulated in a post-process step including non-gravitational forces due to stellar radiation and a gaseous protoplanetary disk. Synthetic images from our numerical simulations show a bright double ring at 850 μm for a low-eccentricity planet, whereas a high-eccentricity planet would produce a characteristic inner ring with asymmetries in the disk. In the presence of first-generation primordial dust these markers would be difficult to detect far from the orbit of the embedded planet, but would be detectable inside a gap of planetary origin in a transitional disk.
<p>Many observations have been made in recent years of the visible/near-IR spectra of the Giant Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune (Fig. 1).&#160; Spectroscopic observations in reflected sunlight are complemented by studies of aerosol opacity at thermal wavelengths, from 5 &#181;m into the mid- and far-infrared. &#160;Observations in reflected sunlight can be inverted to infer vertical atmospheric structure using retrievals algorithms such as NEMESIS. In this paper, we will review recent observations and compare and contrast the aerosol structures derived to be present in these planetary atmospheres. Common themes that will be explored are:</p><ul><li>Cloud condensation requires cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), small particles that can &#8216;seed&#8217; the condensation process. Such materials are common in Earth&#8217;s atmosphere, blown up from the surface or ocean, but to understand formation in Ice Giant atmospheres, which have no surface, we are reliant on photochemistry in the upper atmosphere to photolyse gases such as ammonia and methane to generate hydrocarbon and nitrile hazes. This has a strong effect on where clouds/hazes can form.</li> <li>These photochemically-produced hazes are significantly absorbing at some wavelengths, which affects the observed colours of these planets and also how the reflectance varies with solar and observing zenith angle, i.e., limb-darkening.</li> <li>Moist convection on the giant planets is very different from that in the Earth&#8217;s atmosphere. Moist air in the Earth&#8217;s atmosphere is naturally buoyant since water vapour has a lower molecular weight than the surrounding N<sub>2</sub>/O<sub>2</sub> air. On giant planets, however, moist air containing ammonia, water vapour or methane, has a significantly higher molecular weight than the surrounding H<sub>2</sub>/He air and hence tends to sink. Precipitation of condensed phases of ices, such as ammonia-water &#8216;mushballs&#8217; on Jupiter, can be responsible for changing the vertical distributions of condensable species considerably, compared to equilibrium condensation models.</li> <li>Regions of cloud condensation can lead to a significant decrease of mean molecular weight with height, leading to regions of significant static stability that may help suppress convection, and potentially separate atmospheric circulation into multiple stacked layers of differing properties.</li> </ul><p>While reviewing these recent measurement and retrieval studies we will also outline how degenerate the solutions are: since we have very little prior knowledge and limited data there are a wide range of solutions that can fit the observations equally well. Fortunately, we have found that the Minnaert limb-darkening model gives us a means of reducing this degeneracy and we shall show how this approach has greatly improved the robustness and reliability of our recent retrievals.</p><p><img src="https://contentmanager.copernicus.org/fileStorageProxy.php?f=gepj.d6e6c056128260652962561/sdaolpUECMynit/2202CSPE&app=m&a=0&c=08ad42422f5c74b7a51b315fec59ad93&ct=x&pn=gepj.elif&d=1" alt=""></p><p>Figure 1. Visible appearance of the giant planets in our solar system: Jupiter (upper-left), Saturn (upper-right), Uranus (lower-left) and Neptune (lower-right)</p><p>&#160;</p><div> <div> <div>&#160;</div> </div> </div>
<p>Uranus&#8217; atmosphere, once thought to be bland and static, has, in recent years, been shown to be anything but that. Radiative transfer retrieval analysis of high-resolution telescope observations has uncovered a dynamic atmosphere, displaying seasonal change and latitudinal variability. Uranus&#8217; atmosphere is enshrouded in a global cloud/haze, meaning a robust aerosol layer model is required to probe any variability observed in its discrete features. One such example is its north polar hood, a bright &#8216;cap-like&#8217; feature enshrouding the polar region northwards of ~45&#176;N latitude (Fig. 1).</p> <p>&#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160;<img src="data:image/png;base64, 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
<p>Previous studies of the reflectance spectra of Uranus and Neptune concentrated on individual, narrow wavelength regions, inferring solutions for the vertical structure of gases and aerosols that work well for the wavelength range fitted, but not elsewhere. This has made it difficult to interpret these works with respect to the underlying physical structures. Here we searched for a model of the vertical distribution of haze and methane abundance that fits the whole 0.3 &#8211; 2.5 &#181;m range simultaneously, determining more robust solutions.</p><p>We reanalysed a set of observations from: HST/STIS (0.3-1.0 &#181;m), IRTF/SpeX (0.8-2.5 &#181;m), and Gemini/NIFS (1.4-1.8 &#181;m). &#160;Using a Minnaert limb-darkening model, we were able to partially disentangle cloud opacity and cloud absorbing effects, resulting in a model of the vertical distribution of aerosols and methane that is consistent with the observed reflectivity spectra of <strong>both </strong>planets and fits <strong>all</strong> wavelengths simultaneously. This model consists of three main components:&#160; Aerosol-1) a deep aerosol layer with a base pressure > 5-7 bar, assumed to be a mixture of H<sub>2</sub>S ice and photochemical haze; Aerosol-2) a layer of photochemical haze/ice, coincident with a layer of high static stability at the methane condensation level at 1-2 bar; and Aerosol-3) an extended layer of photochemical haze, likely mostly of the same composition as the 1-2-bar layer, extending from this level up through to the stratosphere, the likely origin of the photochemical haze particles. For Neptune, we also need to add a thin layer of micron-sized methane ice particles (Aerosol-4) at ~0.2 bar to explain the enhanced reflection at longer methane-absorbing wavelengths. We suggest that methane condenses onto the haze particles at the base of the 1-2-bar Aerosol-2 layer and forms ice/haze particles that grow very quickly to large size and immediately &#8216;snow out&#8217;, as predicted by Carlson et al. (1988). We suggest that these particles re-evaporate at deeper, warmer levels to release their core haze particles to act as condensation nuclei for H<sub>2</sub>S ice formation in the Aerosol-1 layer (Fig. 1).</p><p><img src="https://contentmanager.copernicus.org/fileStorageProxy.php?f=gnp.48f3c02d128264034962561/sdaolpUECMynit/2202CSPE&app=m&a=0&c=90d68c53c584f58ce133a1d6871570f5&ct=x&pn=gnp.elif&d=1" alt=""></p><p><em>Figure 1. Summary of retrieved aerosol distributions for Uranus (left) and Neptune (right), compared with their assumed temperature/pressure profiles. On each plot are also shown the condensation lines for CH<sub>4</sub> (green) and H<sub>2</sub>S (pink), assuming 10-bar mole fractions of 4% for CH<sub>4</sub> and 0.001 for H<sub>2</sub>S, to move the condensation levels to the approximate levels of the Aerosol-1 and Aerosol-2 layers.</em></p><p>We find that the particles in the 1-2 bar Aerosol-2 layer have the greatest impact on the overall colour of Uranus and Neptune. These particles would appear mostly white in the visible, but become increasingly absorbing at blue/UV and near-IR wavelengths. The Aerosol-2 layer on Uranus has approximately twice the opacity as the same layer on Neptune, giving Uranus a paler blue-green colour than the deeper blue of Neptune, and also explains why Uranus is darker than Neptune at UV wavelengths as can be seen in Figs. 2 and 3.</p><p><img src="https://contentmanager.copernicus.org/fileStorageProxy.php?f=gepj.ed5c2cad128264444962561/sdaolpUECMynit/2202CSPE&app=m&a=0&c=96a247f500df51ca67466219e93457a0&ct=x&pn=gepj.elif&d=1" alt=""></p><p><em>Figure 2. HST/STIS I/F spectra of Uranus and Neptune averaged along the central meridian of these planets. Also overplotted, for reference are the red, green, blue sensitivities of the human eye.</em></p><p><img src="https://contentmanager.copernicus.org/fileStorageProxy.php?f=gnp.773ee2fd128264154962561/sdaolpUECMynit/2202CSPE&app=m&a=0&c=32b12171ce316bfabc5b93b07c661cd5&ct=x&pn=gnp.elif&d=1" alt=""></p><p><em>Figure 3. Modelled appearances of Uranus and Neptune. The right-hand column shows the simulated &#8216;observed&#8217; appearance of Uranus and Neptune, reconstructed using the fitted Minnaert limb-darkening coefficients extracted from HST/STIS data. The spectra across the discs were convolved with the Commission Internationale de l&#8217;&#201;clairage (CIE)-standard red, green, and blue human cone spectral sensitivities to yield these apparent colours. The preceding columns show how our modelled appearance of these planets changes as we add different components to our radiative-transfer model.</em></p><p>For the deeper Aerosol-1 layer, a darkening of this layer (or possibly, but less likely, a clearing of the aerosols) provides a good match to the observed spectral properties of dark spots on Neptune, such as the Great Dark Spot observed on Neptune in 1989 by Voyager-2 (Fig. 4), and the more recent NDS-2018 spot, first observed by HST/WFC3 in 2018 (Fig. 5). Such spots are seen to have maximum visibility at ~500 nm, but are invisible at UV wavelengths and also at wavelengths longer than 700 nm. We will discuss the dynamical implications these conclusions have on the possible structure of such dark spots.</p><p><img src="https://contentmanager.copernicus.org/fileStorageProxy.php?f=gepj.1d7b841f128264084962561/sdaolpUECMynit/2202CSPE&app=m&a=0&c=2f2926417e1e6cc2f97f2425807a2466&ct=x&pn=gepj.elif&d=1" alt=""></p><p><em>Figure 4. Representative Voyager-2 ISS images of Neptune, observed in August 1989 in the Clear, UV, Violet, Blue, Green and Orange filters, respectively, of the Narrow Angle Camera (NAC). The Great Dark Spot and Dark Spot 2 are visible, except in the UV channel. Also visible, except in the UV, is the darker belt at 45-55&#176;S.</em></p><p><img src="https://contentmanager.copernicus.org/fileStorageProxy.php?f=gnp.09ee0f2f128261384962561/sdaolpUECMynit/2202CSPE&app=m&a=0&c=284ac2a53c7b0a4dff00684677373dae&ct=x&pn=gnp.elif&d=1" alt=""></p><p><em>Figure 5. Observed and reconstructed HST/WFC3 images of Neptune made in 2018. Top: observations with the NDS-2018 feature at upper left and a dark lane at 60&#176;S at lower right. Middle: images reconstructed from our fits to the HST/STIS data, but also including a hole in the deep Aerosol-1 layer (p>5-7 bar) near the central meridian at 15&#176;N, and a clearing at 60&#176;S. Bottom: a second set of images reconstructed from our fits, but where the Aerosol-1 layer is instead darkened near the central meridian at 15&#176;N and at all longitudes at 60&#176;S.</em></p><p>Finally, the homogenous haze layer near the 1-2 bar methane condensation level can be explained by a layer of high static stability caused by the release of latent heat and by the significant decrease with height of the mean atmospheric molecular weight caused by methane condensation, which has a large deep abundance (~4%) and is much heavier than the surrounding H<sub>2</sub>-He air. Methane condensation would quickly form very large ice particles at the base of this haze layer that immediately &#8216;snow out&#8217;, explaining why a layer of methane ice is not found at its condensation level. Limited mixing from the potential static stability barrier at 1-2 bar could permit external CO entering Neptune&#8217;s atmosphere to be trapped in the upper troposphere, removing the need for extreme internal oxygen enrichment in order to explain the wide wings in Neptune&#8217;s sub-mm CO lines.</p>
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