Seamus Heaney’s Europe is a space of contradictions. On the one hand, there is his belief in the principle of the national and ethnic identity understood in essentialist terms. On the other hand, there is a vision of the European tradition as multi-layered and devoid of clear outlines and a stable centre. The two moments inform Heaney’s work and are examined in the context of literary fascinations and interdependencies.
Central to James's understanding of the novelistic genre was his assumption that the work of art should be organically coherent and unified. However, his prefaces to The New York Edition are informed by a sense of ambiguities permeating the concept of organicism and imply a possibility that the novelistic language contains virus-like qualities that disrupt its unity. James questioned the organic form in the name of what he called the “incalculable art” of the novel and concluded that the artistic process has to take into account the author's and the readers' capacities to interpret the same story in different ways.
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