BackgroundWhile it is generally accepted that patterns of intra-specific genetic differentiation are substantially affected by glacial history, population genetic processes occurring during Pleistocene glaciations are still poorly understood. In this study, we address the question of the genetic consequences of Pleistocene glaciations for European grey wolves. Combining our data with data from published studies, we analysed phylogenetic relationships and geographic distribution of mitochondrial DNA haplotypes for 947 contemporary European wolves. We also compared the contemporary wolf sequences with published sequences of 24 ancient European wolves.ResultsWe found that haplotypes representing two haplogroups, 1 and 2, overlap geographically, but substantially differ in frequency between populations from south-western and eastern Europe. A comparison between haplotypes from Europe and other continents showed that both haplogroups are spread throughout Eurasia, while only haplogroup 1 occurs in contemporary North American wolves. All ancient wolf samples from western Europe that dated from between 44,000 and 1,200 years B.P. belonged to haplogroup 2, suggesting the long-term predominance of this haplogroup in this region. Moreover, a comparison of current and past frequencies and distributions of the two haplogroups in Europe suggested that haplogroup 2 became outnumbered by haplogroup 1 during the last several thousand years.ConclusionsParallel haplogroup replacement, with haplogroup 2 being totally replaced by haplogroup 1, has been reported for North American grey wolves. Taking into account the similarity of diets reported for the late Pleistocene wolves from Europe and North America, the correspondence between these haplogroup frequency changes may suggest that they were associated with ecological changes occurring after the Last Glacial Maximum.

The diet of foxes, Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus, 1758) was estimated on the basis of analysis of approximately 1000 portions of faeces collected successively during three years. Estimation of the degree of different food constituent enabled assessment of the biomass of food consumed by these predators. Small rodents dominate in the diet of foxes (65.1%). Hares are less important (26.0°/o), while roe deer and birds are supplementary constituents. Among small rodents prevails Microtus arvalis (93.1°/o). It was shown that the availability of voles for foxes is a factor deciding on the diet of foxes. Estimates of year consumption of voles and hares by foxes are presented and the effect of these predators on the population of small rodents is discussed. * Praca została wykonana w ramach problemu węzłowego: Ekologiczne efekty intensywnej uprawy roli.Ul

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An analysis was m ade of th e diet, n u m b ers an d p en e tratio n of study a re a by a group of p red ato rs ty p ical of th e agrocenoses of the W ielkopolska region of Poland. T h ere w as d istinguished a gro u p of p re d ato rs highly specialized in c a p tu re of the com m on vole. This group includes species for w hich th e vole form s th e m ost im p o rta n t com ponent of th e ir food, w hich react very m ark ed ly in respect of th eir num bers to variations in th e density of th is ro d en t an d w hich obtain th eir food chiefly in fields and meadows. E stim ates are given of th e e x te n t of p ressu re ex erted by p red ato rs on field an d fo rest ro d en ts, an d m eans of counteracting m ass irru p tio n of field ro d en ts discussed.[Inst. Ecol., Dept. Agroecol,, Polish Acad. Sci., 64-003 T urew , Poland].

On the area of 3,100 ha of cultivated fields the density of the following species of rodents was estimated: M. arvalis in fields and C. glareolus, A. flavicollis and A. agrarius in woods. At the same time the numbers of predatory nammals and birds were estimated. During the whole period of study in area under examination 3,400,000 individuals of M. arvalis and 43,000 of forest rodents were present. Between the depression and the peak of numbers the density of M. arvalis increased over one hundred-times. At the density of 44 individuals/ha the voles consumed in a year 79 kg d.w. of alfa-alfa/ha, and at 774 indiv./ha as much as 1,153 kg d.w./ha. It was demonstrated that the ratio of plant weight destroyed to consumed amounted in alfa-alfa cultures to 1.8:1. At a low density c\f M. arvalis considerable losses of winter rye during winter are compensated by the regrowth of plants in spring. Food requirement of predators was determined and their diet in field conditions was investigated. The highest number of M. arvalis was consumed by foxes, lower by cats and weasels. The predators hunted mainly in areas showing the highest rodent density. With the increased numbers of M. arvalis its share in the diet of all predators rose up to 80%. Despite this the pressure of predators on the population of M. arvalis decreased, e.g. in the year of outbreak the predators removed barely 10.8% of all present individuals. With the increased proportion of M. arvalis in the diet of fox the proportion of consumed hares decreases. A scheme of trophic relationships of M. arvalis is presented. INTRODUCTION AND STUDY AREAComprehensive understanding of the importance of the common vole, Microtus arvalis (Pallas, 1779), in the trophic relationship of cultivated fields is still incomplete despite a large number of ecological studies concerning this species, as manifested by the publication of two monographs (Kratochvil, 1959; B a s e n i n a, 1962). Existing historical notes indicate that since ancient times M. arvalis has been recognized * Praca została wykonana w ramach problemu węzłowego 09.1.7., koordynowanego przez Instytut Ekologii PAN. Acta theriol. 9 r. 2 si

Diets of the Eurasian badger Meles meles were studied by scat analysis in three localities of eastern and central Poland, representing pristine forests and rural landscapes with little wood cover. In spring, earthworms constituted 82±89% of biomass consumed by badgers in all localities. In summer and autumn, the proportion declined to 56% in the pristine forest, and to 24% in the mosaic of forests, ®elds, and orchards. Supplementary resources at this time were amphibians (in forests) or garden fruits (in a rural landscape). Literature on badger diet composition in Europe showed that earthworms and vegetable matter were the dominant food types of badgers, but their roles changed with latitude. The share of earthworms grew from nil at 37±408N to 40±70% at 55±638N; the opposite trend was observed for vegetable food. Also, of two major supplementary resources, vertebrates were taken by badgers more often at northern latitudes, and insects in the south. In consequence, the food niche of badgers was broadest at 45±558N and became narrow at both lower and higher latitudes. Moreover, in the temperate zone of Europe, the degree of habitat transformation by humans signi®cantly affected badger feeding habits. In forests, badgers relied predominantly on earthworms (on average, 62% in diets). In farmlands and pastures, earthworms and plant material (usually garden fruit and cereals) played equally important roles (34% each). This biogeographical pattern of feeding habits can be explained by variation in abundance and availability of earthworms.

Jacek GOSZCZYÑSKIGoszczyński J., 1986: Diet of foxes and martens in central Poland. Acta theriol., 31, The diet of foxes and martens was examined on the basis of the composition of their feaces (1139 and 813 portions, respectively) collected from the same area in central Poland. Although the mean density of the common vole was low in the study area, an increase in the number of these rodents was followed by a functional response of both foxes and martens. This response, however, was weaker than in the areas with a high abundance of voles. The proportion of voles in the diet was more variable in the study area than in the areas of their high densities. In the diet of foxes, three groups of food items were found in similar proportions (about 26-33% by weight): small mammals, birds, and hares. In foxes a compensatory response was found between the consumption of small mammals, on the one hand, and birds and hares, on the other. Martens consumed the same three groups of prey; but also fruits were an important component of their diet (37%). Except for small mammals preyed upon by martens throughout the year, the other food items (hares, birds, insects, and fruits) were consumed from time to time. Martens showed a compensatory response between preying on small mammals and eating fruits in summer and autumn months, and also between preying upon small mammals and birds in winter and spring months. The diet of foxes was characterized by a small annual variation and a High seasonal variation in the study area as compared with areas supporting high vole densities.