Savanna ecosystems are characterized by the co‐occurrence of trees and grasses. In this paper, we argue that the balance between trees and grasses is, to a large extent, determined by the indirect interactive effects of herbivory and fire. These effects are based on the positive feedback between fuel load (grass biomass) and fire intensity. An increase in the level of grazing leads to reduced fuel load, which makes fire less intense and, thus, less damaging to trees and, consequently, results in an increase in woody vegetation. The system then switches from a state with trees and grasses to a state with solely trees. Similarly, browsers may enhance the effect of fire on trees because they reduce woody biomass, thus indirectly stimulating grass growth. This consequent increase in fuel load results in more intense fire and increased decline of biomass. The system then switches from a state with solely trees to a state with trees and grasses. We maintain that the interaction between fire and herbivory provides a mechanistic explanation for observed discontinuous changes in woody and grass biomass. This is an alternative for the soil degradation mechanism, in which there is a positive feedback between the amount of grass biomass and the amount of water that infiltrates into the soil. The soil degradation mechanism predicts no discontinuous changes, such as bush encroachment, on sandy soils. Such changes, however, are frequently observed. Therefore, the interactive effects of fire and herbivory provide a more plausible explanation for the occurrence of discontinuous changes in savanna ecosystems.

Habitat fragmentation affects both plants and pollinators. Habitat fragmentation leads to changes in species richness, population number and size, density, and shape, thus to changes in the spatial arrangement of flowers. These changes influence the amount of food for flower-visiting insects and the quantity and quality of pollinations.Seed set in small populations is often reduced and genetic variation is expected but not always found to be low. The majority of studies show that low flower densities have reduced pollination success and higher inbreeding. Density effects are stronger than size effects.Most studies concluded that species richness in flowervisiting insects is directly related to richness in plant species. However, the consequences of low insect species richness for pollination are not always clear, depending on the studied pollinator-plant relationship. The effects of the presence of simultaneously flowering species are highly dependent on the circumstances and may range from competition to facilitation. Other flowering plant species may play a role as stepping stones or corridor in the connection between populations. In the absence of stepping stones even short distances between populations act as strong barriers for gene flow.We illustrate the present review paper with own data collected for three plant species, rare in The Netherlands: Phyteuma spicatum ssp. nigrum (Campanulaceae), Salvia pratensis (Labiatae) and Scabiosa columbaria (Dipsacaceae). The species differ in their breeding systems and in the assemblage of visitor species. Data are shown on the effects of population size on species richness with consequences for seed set. Effects of flower density and isolation on pollen exchange are given. Since plant reproduction depends on the behaviour of individual insects and not on the overall behaviour of the species, the examples all point to individual insects and extrapolate to effects at the species level.

The presence of the synthetic nonionic surfactants Triton X-100, Tergitol NPX, Brij 35, and Igepal CA-720 resulted not only in increased apparent solubilities but also in increased maximal rates of dissolution of crystalline naphthalene and phenanthrene. A model based on the assumption that surfactant micelles are formed and act as a separate phase underestimated the dissolution rates; this led to the conclusion that surfactants present at concentrations higher than the critical micelle concentration affect the dissolution process. This conclusion was confirmed by the results of batch growth experiments, which showed that the rates of biodegradation of naphthalene and phenanthrene in the dissolution-limited growth phase were increased by the addition of surfactant, indicating that the dissolution rates were higher than the rates in the absence of surfactant. In activity and growth experiments, no toxic effects of the surfactants at concentrations up to 10 g liter ؊1 were observed. Substrate present in the micellar phase was shown to be not readily available for degradation by the microorganisms. This finding has important consequences for the application of (bio)surfactants in biological soil remediation.

It is demonstrated that bacterial growth on crystalline or adsorbed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons can result in a linear increase in biomass concentration. A simple mathematical approach is presented, showing that under these circumstances mass transfer from the solid phase to the liquid phase is rate-limiting for growth.

The TOL catabolic genes in Pseudomonas putida(pWWO) are clustered in the upper operon, encoding enzymes for the conversion of toluene and xylenes to benzoate and toluates, and the meta-cleavage operon, encoding enzymes for the conversion of the benzoate and toluates to tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates. In this study, it was shown that cells growing in a chemostat under succinate growth-limiting conditions express both the upper and meta-cleavage pathways in response to o-xylene, a nonmetabolizable effector of the XylR regulatory protein. The dilution rate maintained in the succinate-limited chemostat cultures influenced the synthesis levels of TOL pathway enzymes, their steady-state levels, and their turnover rates. Cells growing in the presence of nonlimiting concentrations of succinate in continuous culture did not express pathway enzymes in response to the addition of o-xylene, which was due to a blockage at the transcriptional level. Expression of the meta-cleavage pathway in response to 2,3-dimethylbenzoate, a nonmetabolizable elector of the XylS regulatory protein, was 93% lower in cultures exposed to succinate at nonlimiting concentrations than in the succinate-limited chemostats. The mRNA level of xylS during nonlimited growth on succinate was very low compared with that in succinate-limited cultures, suggesting that suppression of expression of the metacleavage pathway is regulated mainly by the level of the XylS regulator.Many soil bacteria are known to be capable of mineralizing aromatic compounds. The most extensively studied organism in this respect is Pseudomonas putida(pWWO), which can utilize toluene, m-and p-xylene, pseudocumene, and mi-ethyltoluene as sole sources of carbon and energy. The genetic information for the transformation of these aromatics to central metabolites is harbored by the transmissible TOL plasmid pWWO (3). Figure 1 shows the genetic organization of the catabolic operons. Expression of the structural genes on

Plant and bird diversity in the Indonesian jungle rubber agroforestry system was compared to that in primary forest and rubber plantations by integrating new and existing data from a lowland rain forest area in Sumatra. Jungle rubber gardens are low-input rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) agroforests that structurally resemble secondary forest and in which wild species are tolerated by the farmer. As primary forests have almost completely disappeared from the lowlands of the Sumatra peneplain, our aim was to assess the contribution of jungle rubber as a land use type to the conservation of plant and bird species, especially those that are associated with the forest interior of primary and old secondary forest. Speciesaccumulation curves were compiled for terrestrial and epiphytic pteridophytes, trees and birds, and for subsets of 'forest species' of terrestrial pteridophytes and birds. Comparing jungle rubber and primary forest, groups differed in relative species richness patterns. Species richness in jungle rubber was slightly higher (terrestrial pteridophytes), similar (birds) or lower (epiphytic pteridophytes, trees, vascular plants as a whole) than in primary forest. For subsets of 'forest species' of terrestrial pteridophytes and birds, species richness in jungle rubber was lower than in primary forest. For all groups, species richness in jungle rubber was generally higher than in rubber plantations. Although species conservation in jungle rubber is limited by management practices and by a slash-and-burn cycle for replanting of about 40 years, this forest-like land use does support species diversity in an impoverished landscape increasingly dominated by monoculture plantations.

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