Evidence of novel steel-making was found in a number of small cast-iron fragments recovered by the Mongolia-American archaeological survey of eastern Mongolia. These iron artefacts come from medieval period habitation and manufacturing sites and they consistently display irregular surface features characteristic of a solidification reaction from a partially molten state. Their microstructure consists of large near-spherical islands of pearlite spread on a background of fine white cast-iron eutectic. Reflected in this peculiar structure is an extremely small-scale steel-making process where one or more small pieces of cast iron were heated above the eutectic temperature for rapid decarburization in the partially molten state. We provide a detailed account of the technological aspects of this micro-scale steel-making method as observed in the microstructure and chemical composition of the objects examined. This small-scale technology was ideally suited to the pastoral nomadic way of life that characterized medieval eastern Mongolia; however, it probably would not have been appropriate for sedentary communities with access to large-scale urban manufacturing centres. Based on this observation, we discuss the role of nomadic lifeways and associated political environments that likely influenced the development of this innovative steel-making technique.
Metallographic examination of numerous bronze objects from the royal Xiongnu tomb at Gol Mod 2 in Mongolia has revealed evidence for a tin‐conserving environment suggesting the emergence of a new technological tradition defined by decreasing reliance on tin and arsenic over time. This apparently humble alloy method was likely facilitated by the advent of iron and steel technologies replacing bronze in the manufacture of critical functional items. We propose that this development was a key episode in the evolution of the Mongolian bronze metallurgical tradition. By substituting iron for utilitarian tools and weapons that had previously been made from bronze, steppe populations overcame a technological hurdle evidenced by the under‐utilization or conservation of tin as a local resource. This major technological shift may well have been one factor in facilitating the rise and development of the Xiongnu state (third century BCE–second century AD).
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