Nitrification, the microbial oxidation of ammonia to nitrite and nitrate, occurs in a wide variety of environments and plays a central role in the global nitrogen cycle. Catalyzed by the enzyme ammonia monooxygenase, the ability to oxidize ammonia was previously thought to be restricted to a few groups within the ␤-and ␥-Proteobacteria. However, recent metagenomic studies have revealed the existence of unique ammonia monooxygenase ␣-subunit (amoA) genes derived from uncultivated, nonextremophilic Crenarchaeota. Here, we report molecular evidence for the widespread presence of ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) in marine water columns and sediments. Using PCR primers designed to specifically target archaeal amoA, we find AOA to be pervasive in areas of the ocean that are critical for the global nitrogen cycle, including the base of the euphotic zone, suboxic water columns, and estuarine and coastal sediments. Diverse and distinct AOA communities are associated with each of these habitats, with little overlap between water columns and sediments. Within marine sediments, most AOA sequences are unique to individual sampling locations, whereas a small number of sequences are evidently cosmopolitan in distribution. Considering the abundance of nonextremophilic archaea in the ocean, our results suggest that AOA may play a significant, but previously unrecognized, role in the global nitrogen cycle.Crenarchaeota ͉ nitrification ͉ ammonia monooxygenase

Nitrification plays an important role in marine biogeochemistry, yet efforts to link this process to the microorganisms that mediate it are surprisingly limited. In particular, ammonia oxidation is the first and rate-limiting step of nitrification, yet ammonia oxidation rates and the abundance of ammoniaoxidizing bacteria (AOB) have rarely been measured in tandem. Ammonia oxidation rates have not been directly quantified in conjunction with ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA), although mounting evidence indicates that marine Crenarchaeota are capable of ammonia oxidation, and they are among the most abundant microbial groups in the ocean. Here, we have directly quantified ammonia oxidation rates by 15 N labeling, and AOA and AOB abundances by quantitative PCR analysis of ammonia monooxygenase subunit A (amoA) genes, in the Gulf of California. Based on markedly different archaeal amoA sequence types in the upper water column (60 m) and oxygen minimum zone (OMZ; 450 m), novel amoA PCR primers were designed to specifically target and quantify 'shallow' (group A) and 'deep' (group B) clades. These primers recovered extensive variability with depth. Within the OMZ, AOA were most abundant where nitrification may be coupled to denitrification. In the upper water column, group A tracked variations in nitrogen biogeochemistry with depth and between basins, whereas AOB were present in relatively low numbers or undetectable. Overall, 15 NH 4 þ oxidation rates were remarkably well correlated with AOA group A amoA gene copies (r 2 ¼ 0.90, Po0.001), and with 16S rRNA gene copies from marine Crenarchaeota (r 2 ¼ 0.85, Po0.005). These findings represent compelling evidence for an archaeal role in oceanic nitrification.

Microbes have central roles in ocean food webs and global biogeochemical processes, yet specific ecological relationships among these taxa are largely unknown. This is in part due to the dilute, microscopic nature of the planktonic microbial community, which prevents direct observation of their interactions. Here, we use a holistic (that is, microbial system-wide) approach to investigate time-dependent variations among taxa from all three domains of life in a marine microbial community. We investigated the community composition of bacteria, archaea and protists through cultivation-independent methods, along with total bacterial and viral abundance, and physicochemical observations. Samples and observations were collected monthly over 3 years at a welldescribed ocean time-series site of southern California. To find associations among these organisms, we calculated time-dependent rank correlations (that is, local similarity correlations) among relative abundances of bacteria, archaea, protists, total abundance of bacteria and viruses and physico-chemical parameters. We used a network generated from these statistical correlations to visualize and identify time-dependent associations among ecologically important taxa, for example, the SAR11 cluster, stramenopiles, alveolates, cyanobacteria and ammonia-oxidizing archaea. Negative correlations, perhaps suggesting competition or predation, were also common. The analysis revealed a progression of microbial communities through time, and also a group of unknown eukaryotes that were highly correlated with dinoflagellates, indicating possible symbioses or parasitism. Possible 'keystone' species were evident. The network has statistical features similar to previously described ecological networks, and in network parlance has non-random, small world properties (that is, highly interconnected nodes). This approach provides new insights into the natural history of microbes.

Microbial activities drive the global nitrogen cycle, and in the past few years, our understanding of nitrogen cycling processes and the micro-organisms that mediate them has changed dramatically. During this time, the processes of anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox), and ammonia oxidation within the domain Archaea, have been recognized as two new links in the global nitrogen cycle. All available evidence indicates that these processes and organisms are critically important in the environment, and particularly in the ocean. Here we review what is currently known about the microbial ecology of anaerobic and archaeal ammonia oxidation, highlight relevant unknowns and discuss the implications of these discoveries for the global nitrogen and carbon cycles.

Microorganisms are vital in mediating the earth’s biogeochemical cycles; yet, despite our rapidly increasing ability to explore complex environmental microbial communities, the relationship between microbial community structure and ecosystem processes remains poorly understood. Here, we address a fundamental and unanswered question in microbial ecology: ‘When do we need to understand microbial community structure to accurately predict function?’ We present a statistical analysis investigating the value of environmental data and microbial community structure independently and in combination for explaining rates of carbon and nitrogen cycling processes within 82 global datasets. Environmental variables were the strongest predictors of process rates but left 44% of variation unexplained on average, suggesting the potential for microbial data to increase model accuracy. Although only 29% of our datasets were significantly improved by adding information on microbial community structure, we observed improvement in models of processes mediated by narrow phylogenetic guilds via functional gene data, and conversely, improvement in models of facultative microbial processes via community diversity metrics. Our results also suggest that microbial diversity can strengthen predictions of respiration rates beyond microbial biomass parameters, as 53% of models were improved by incorporating both sets of predictors compared to 35% by microbial biomass alone. Our analysis represents the first comprehensive analysis of research examining links between microbial community structure and ecosystem function. Taken together, our results indicate that a greater understanding of microbial communities informed by ecological principles may enhance our ability to predict ecosystem process rates relative to assessments based on environmental variables and microbial physiology.

Ocean acidification produced by dissolution of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions in seawater has profound consequences for marine ecology and biogeochemistry. The oceans have absorbed one-third of CO 2 emissions over the past two centuries, altering ocean chemistry, reducing seawater pH, and affecting marine animals and phytoplankton in multiple ways. Microbially mediated ocean biogeochemical processes will be pivotal in determining how the earth system responds to global environmental change; however, how they may be altered by ocean acidification is largely unknown. We show here that microbial nitrification rates decreased in every instance when pH was experimentally reduced (by 0.05-0.14) at multiple locations in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Nitrification is a central process in the nitrogen cycle that produces both the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide and oxidized forms of nitrogen used by phytoplankton and other microorganisms in the sea; at the Bermuda Atlantic Time Series and Hawaii Ocean Time-series sites, experimental acidification decreased ammonia oxidation rates by 38% and 36%. Ammonia oxidation rates were also strongly and inversely correlated with pH along a gradient produced in the oligotrophic Sargasso Sea (r 2 = 0.87, P < 0.05). Across all experiments, rates declined by 8-38% in low pH treatments, and the greatest absolute decrease occurred where rates were highest off the California coast. Collectively our results suggest that ocean acidification could reduce nitrification rates by 3-44% within the next few decades, affecting oceanic nitrous oxide production, reducing supplies of oxidized nitrogen in the upper layers of the ocean, and fundamentally altering nitrogen cycling in the sea.A tmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) concentrations are projected to double over the next century as human societies continue to burn fossil fuels and biomass (1), yet a large proportion of emitted anthropogenic CO 2 will dissolve in the ocean rather than accumulate in the atmosphere (1-4). Dissolution of CO 2 in seawater produces a weak acid that has decreased surface ocean pH by ∼0.1 below preindustrial levels, and an additional 0.3-0.4 decline is expected by the year 2100 (2, 4). This more than twofold increase in surface ocean hydrogen ion concentrations [H + ] will be accompanied by increasing CO 2 partial pressures (pCO 2 ), increasing bicarbonate ion concentrations [HCO 3 − ], decreasing carbonate ion concentrations [CO 3 2− ], and multiple shifts in trace metal and nutrient chemistry (2-4). Predicting the responses of marine organisms, ecosystems, and biogeochemical processes to these fundamental changes in ocean chemistry is consequently a major scientific challenge (5-9). Although marine bacteria and archaea constitute the majority of biomass in the sea, sustain a large percentage of global primary production, and govern biogeochemical cycling of carbon and nitrogen (10), we lack a clear understanding of how they will react to ocean acidification (9, 11).In an acidifying ocean, microbial comm...

Long-term declines in oxygen concentrations are evident throughout much of the ocean interior and are particularly acute in midwater oxygen minimum zones (OMZs). These regions are defined by extremely low oxygen concentrations (<20-45 μmol kg(-1)), cover wide expanses of the ocean, and are associated with productive oceanic and coastal regions. OMZs have expanded over the past 50 years, and this expansion is predicted to continue as the climate warms worldwide. Shoaling of the upper boundaries of the OMZs accompanies OMZ expansion, and decreased oxygen at shallower depths can affect all marine organisms through multiple direct and indirect mechanisms. Effects include altered microbial processes that produce and consume key nutrients and gases, changes in predator-prey dynamics, and shifts in the abundance and accessibility of commercially fished species. Although many species will be negatively affected by these effects, others may expand their range or exploit new niches. OMZ shoaling is thus likely to have major and far-reaching consequences.

Nitrification within estuarine sediments plays an important role in the nitrogen cycle, both at the global scale and in individual estuaries. Although bacteria were once thought to be solely responsible for catalyzing the first and rate-limiting step of this process, several recent studies have suggested that mesophilic Crenarchaeota are capable of performing ammonia oxidation. Here we examine the diversity (richness and community composition) of ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and bacteria (AOB) within sediments of Bahía del Tóbari, a hypernutrified estuary receiving substantial amounts of ammonium in agricultural runoff. Using PCR primers designed to specifically target the archaeal ammonia monooxygenase ␣-subunit (amoA) gene, we found AOA to be present at five sampling sites within this estuary and at two sampling time points (January and October 2004). In contrast, the bacterial amoA gene was PCR amplifiable from only 40% of samples. Bacterial amoA libraries were dominated by a few widely distributed Nitrosomonas-like sequence types, whereas AOA diversity showed significant variation in both richness and community composition. AOA communities nevertheless exhibited consistent spatial structuring, with two distinct end member assemblages recovered from the interior and the mouths of the estuary and a mixed assemblage from an intermediate site. These findings represent the first detailed examination of archaeal amoA diversity in estuarine sediments and demonstrate that diverse communities of Crenarchaeota capable of ammonia oxidation are present within estuaries, where they may be actively involved in nitrification.