Ninety years ago, Gregory Shwartzman first reported an unusual discovery
following the intradermal injection of sterile culture filtrates from
principally Gram-negative strains from bacteria into normal rabbits. If this
priming dose was followed in 24 h by a second intravenous challenge (the
provocative dose) from same culture filtrate, dermal necrosis at the first
injection site would regularly occur. This peculiar, but highly reproducible,
event fascinated the microbiologists, hematologists, and immunologists of the
time, who set out to determine the mechanisms that underlie the pathogenesis of
this reaction. The speed of this reaction seemed to rule out an adaptive,
humoral, immune response as its cause. Histopathologic material from within the
necrotic center revealed fibrinoid, thrombo-hemorrhagic necrosis within small
arterioles and capillaries in the micro-circulation. These pathologic features
bore a striking resemblance to a more generalized coagulopathic phenomenon
following two repeated endotoxin injections described 4 yr earlier by Sanarelli.
This reaction came to be known as the generalized Shwartzman phenomenon, while
the dermal reaction was named the localized or dermal Shwartzman reaction. A
third category was later added, called the single organ or mono-visceral form of
the Shwartzman phenomenon. The occasional occurrence of typical pathological
features of the generalized Shwartzman reaction limited to a single organ is
notable in many well-known clinical events (e.g., hyper-acute kidney transplant
rejection, fulminant hepatic necrosis, or adrenal apoplexy in
Waterhouse-Fredrickson syndrome). We will briefly review the history and the
significant insights gained from understanding this phenomenon regarding the
circuitry and control mechanisms responsible for disseminated intravascular
coagulation, the vasculopathy and the immunopathy of sepsis.
This essay examines the development of Andrew Jackson's ideas about nationalism, citizenship, and sovereignty within the southern borderlands of the post-Revolutionary United States. It argues that he was in many respects a conventional borderlands leader-that is, someone with little sense of attachment to any particular polity, who speculated in Indian lands while pursuing commercial ventures through American, Spanish, and Native jurisdictions. But an especially devastating war between the settlers of Middle Tennessee and some Cherokee warriors during the 1790s forced Jackson and others to articulate their attachment to the United States in new ways. Bitterly rejecting a Federalist model of citizenship that assumed clear territorial limits, they invented a new "protection covenant," whereby the people themselves, imagined within a brutal state of nature, retained full sovereignty to deploy violence. In addition to a fresh look at Jackson, the article demonstrates the importance of international as well as Constitutional law in the formation of early American nationalism.
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