The receptors found on most T lymphocytes bind to antigen presented on major histocompatibility complex proteins and consist of dimers of alpha- and beta-polypeptides associated with the invariant CD3 complex. A fully competent immune system requires a diverse array of T-cell antigen receptors (TCRs) with different specificities. This diversity is generated by rearrangement of TCR alpha- and beta-chain gene segments within the thymus where the receptors are first expressed. Any cells carrying self-reactive receptors must be eliminated, suppressed or inactivated so that destructive autoimmunity is avoided. Recently, compelling evidence has shown that one process involved in producing such self-tolerance is clonal deletion of autoreactive cells within the thymus by an as-yet-undefined mechanism. Here we show that engaging the CD3/TCR complex of immature mouse thymocytes with anti-CD3 antibodies produces DNA degradation and cell death through the endogenous pathway of apoptosis. Activation of this process in immature T cells by the binding of the TCR to self-antigens may therefore be the mechanism which produces clonal deletion and consequently self-tolerance.

Interactions between stromal cells and thymocytes play a crucial role in T cell development. The thymic stroma is complex and consists of epithelial cells derived from the pharyngeal region during development, together with macrophages and dendritic cells of bone marrow origin. In addition, fibroblasts and matrix molecules permeate the whole framework. It is now apparent that these individual stromal components play specialized roles at different stages of T cell differentiation. Thus, at the early CD4-8- stage of development, T cell precursors require fibroblast as well as epithelial cell interactions. Later, at the CD4+8+ stage, as well as providing low avidity TCR/MHC-peptide interactions, thymic epithelial cells have been shown to possess unique properties essential for positive selection. Dendritic cells, on the other hand, are probably efficient mediators of negative selection, but they may not be solely responsible for this activity. Alongside the functional roles of stromal cells, considerable progress is being made in unraveling the nature of the signaling pathways involved in T cell development. Identification of the pre-T cell receptor (pre-TCR) and associated signaling molecules marks an important advance in understanding the mechanisms that control gene rearrangement and allelic exclusion. In addition, a better understanding of the signaling pathways that lead to positive selection on the one hand and negative selection on the other is beginning to emerge. Many issues remain unresolved, and some are discussed in this review. What, for example, is the nature of the chemotactic factor(s) that attract stem cells to the thymus? What is the molecular basis of the essential interactions between early thymocytes and fibroblasts, and early thymocytes and epithelial cells? What is special about cortical epithelial cells in supporting positive selection? These and other issues are ripe for analysis and can now be approached using a combination of modern molecular and cellular techniques.

Mice deficient for fibroblast growth factor (Fgf)R2-IIIb show a block in thymic growth after embryonic day 12.5, a stage that just precedes its detection in thymic epithelial cells. Fgf7 and Fgf10, the main ligands for FgfR2-IIIb, are expressed in the mesenchyme surrounding the thymic epithelial primordium, and Fgf10-deficient mice also exhibit impaired thymic growth. Hence, Fgf signaling is essential for thymic epithelial proliferation. In addition to the proliferative block, most thymic epithelial cells fail to progress from an immature cytokeratin 5-positive to a cytokeratin 5-negative phenotype. Nevertheless, sufficient epithelial cell differentiation occurs in the severely hypoplastic thymus to allow the development of CD4/CD8-double-positive thymocytes and a very small number of single-positive thymocytes expressing TCRs.

TTAGTGGCGGGATCTATC SS LVAGSI (VJ35.2/ Ji32. 7) Ct AGCAGC ATAGCTGGCGGT SS IAGG (Vi36/ Ji3 2.3) • CDR3 usage in human MBP 88-99 specific T-cell line 1. t CDR3 usage in rat spinal cord derived T-cell clones specific for MPB 85-99 (ref. 2). t Clone derived from a human tonsil cDNA library1 3. § Non-cytolytic mouse T-cell clone specific for influenza virus strain A/PR8/34 (ref. 15). II CDR3 usage in rat lymph node derived T-cell clone specific for MBP 85-99 (ref. 2). ~ G-+S substitution in Ji32.7.

On the basis of reports that deoxyguanosine is selectively toxic for adult T lymphocytes, the usefulness of this compound in the production of lymphocyte-depleted embryonic thymus rudiments in an in vitro organ culture system was investigated. The results showed that a period of exposure to deoxyguanosine causes depletion of the lymphoid cells while the stromal elements continue to survive, with many of the cells showing an epithelial morphology and expression of I region products of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). When associated with either fetal liver or another thymus fragment as a source of T cell precursors in transfilter experiments, these "empty" thymuses become recolonized, enabling the production of chimeric thymus with stromal and lymphoid cells of different haplotypes. In combination with functional assays, this system offers an entirely in vitro approach to questions relating to the repertoire potential of T cell precursors from different sources and the role of the thymus in tolerance and MHC restriction.

SummaryWe describe an in vitro system in which positive sdection of developing T ceils takes place on defined stromal ceU preparations, which include major histocompatibility complex class II + epithelial cells but exclude cells of bone marrow origin. In this system, maturation of doublepositive T cell receptor negative (TCR-), CD4+8 + thymocytes into single-positive TCR +, CD4 + and CD8 + ceils takes place together with the development of functional competence. As in vivo, this maturation is associated with the upregulation of TCR levels as cells progress from double-positive to single-positive status. We also show that dass II + epithelial cells in these cultures are less efficient than dendritic cells in mediating the ddetion (negative selection) of V~/8 + cells by the superantigen staphylococcal enterotoxin B. For the first time, this approach provides a model in which the cellular interactions involved in both positive and negative selection can be studied under controlled in vitro conditions.

Contents 1. Introduction . 2. Wave functions of the magnetic electrons . 2.1. Survey of theoretical approaches . 2.2. Wave functions in a simple system . 2.3. Molecular orbitals in an octahedral complex. 3. Crystal field splitting . 3.1. General properties . 3.2. The origin of A . 3.3. Experimental results . 4.1. Reduction in the orbital magnetic moment . . 4. Orbital magnetic moment, spin-orbit coupling and Racah parameters . 4.2. Spin-orbit coupling effects . 4.3. T h e Racah parameters . 5. Ligand hyperfine interaction . 5.1. Introduction . 5.2. The hyperfine interactions. . 5.3. Approximations , 5.4. Experimental results . 6. Charge transfer effects . 7. Neutron diffraction . 7.1. Scattering intensity . 7.2. Magnetic moment distribution . 7.3. Xote on dipolar anisotropy energy 8.1. The superexchange mechanism .

No abstract