The feasibility, validity, and possible applications of the assessment of extracellular fluid volume (ECFV) simultaneous with glomerular filtration rate (GFR) were assessed in a series of validation studies using the constant infusion method of 125 T he gold standard for measuring glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is by specific tracers, such as inulin, Cr-EDTA, iothalamate, and iohexol (1). Because the distribution volume (V d ) of these tracers for GFR ideally equal extracellular fluid volume (ECFV) (2-9), measuring GFR with such tracers could potentially be used for simultaneous assessment of ECFV.Simultaneously measuring ECFV and GFR has several advantages. First, it will allow better insight into the (patho)physiologic and clinical role of ECFV in renal disease and its complications, such as hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy. Second, it has been proposed that the best way to normalize GFR between different individuals would be by ECFV rather than by body surface area (BSA) (6,10,11). Whereas normalizing GFR for ECFV would be attractive from a theoretical perspective, it has not gained acceptance in practice because it is considered too cumbersome (12). Validation of GFR measurement protocols for simultaneous assessment of ECFV would greatly increase the feasibility of normalizing GFR for ECFV.Various GFR tracers were used for measuring ECFV (2-9), but their validation, reproducibility, and calibration against a gold standard for ECFV are not well documented. In our center, accurate GFR measurement is performed as the clearance of 125 I-iothalamate (IOT) by the constant infusion method, simultaneously with the determination of effective renal plasma flow (ERPF) (13). This renal function measurement is used in topclinical care and for clinical research and allows estimating GFR with a day-to-day variability of only 2.5% (14). The aim of the current study was to validate this renal function protocol for assessing ECFV and to use the combined assessment for normalizing GFR to ECFV. To this purpose, we studied first, the agreement of V d IOT with V d of bromide, the golden standard for ECFV measurements, over a wide range of renal function. Second, we assessed the reproducibility of ECFV measurements by assessing V d IOT under conditions of standardized sodium intake in healthy volunteers. Third, in these volunteers we tested the sensitivity of V d IOT to detect a change in ECFV. Finally, we analyzed the impact of indexing GFR to ECFV in the above volunteers and in a cohort of 158 potential kidney donors. Materials and MethodsAll experiments were performed in adherence to the Declaration of Helsinki, approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of the University Medical Centre Groningen, and all participating subjects gave written informed consent for participation. Measurement of Renal FunctionRenal function measurements were performed using the constant infusion method with IOT and 131 I-Hippuran as described before (13-15). After drawing a time point-0 blood sample, a priming solution
A high sodium (HS) intake is associated to increased cardiovascular and renal risk, especially in overweight subjects. We hypothesized that abnormal sodium and fluid handling is involved, independent of hypertension or insulin resistance. Therefore, we studied the relation between BMI and sodium‐induced changes in extracellular fluid volume (ECFV; distribution volume of 125I‐iothalamate) in 78 healthy men, not selected for BMI. A total of 78 subjects with a median BMI of 22.5 (range: 19.2–33.9 kg/m2) were studied after 1 week on a low sodium (LS) diet (50 mmol Na+/d) and after 1 week on HS (200 mmol Na+/d). The change from LS to HS resulted in an increase in ECFV of 1.2 ± 1.8 l. Individual changes in ECFV were correlated to BMI (r = 0.361, P < 0.01). Furthermore, in response to HS, a higher BMI was associated to a higher rise in filtered load of sodium (FLNa+ = [Na+] × GFR, r = 0.281, P < 0.05). Thus, a shift to HS leads to a larger rise in ECFV in healthy subjects with higher BMI, associated with an elevated FLNa+ during HS. Although no hypertension occurred in these healthy subjects, our data provide a potential explanation for the interaction of sodium intake and BMI on cardiovascular and renal risk. Exaggerated fluid retention may be an early pathogenic factor in the cardiorenal complications of overweight.
In 13 healthy volunteers a computerized experimental set-up was used to measure the electrical impedance of the upper arm at changing cuff pressure, together with the finger arterial blood pressure in the contralateral arm. On the basis of a model for the admittance response, the arterial blood volume per centimeter length (1.4 +/- 0.3 ml/cm), the venous blood volume as a percentage of the total blood compartment (49.2 +/- 12.6%), and the total arterial compliance as a function of mean arterial transmural pressure were estimated. The effective physiological arterial compliance amounted to 2.0 +/- 1.3 microliters.mmHg-1.cm-1 and the maximum compliance to 33.4 +/- 12.0 microliters.mmHg-1.cm-1. Additionally, the extravascular fluid volume expelled by the occluding cuff (0.3 +/- 0.3 ml/cm) was estimated. These quantities are closely related to patient-dependent sources of an unreliable blood pressure measurement and vary with changes in cardiovascular function, such as those found in hypertension. Traditionally, a combination of several methods is needed to estimate them. Such methods, however, usually neglect the contribution of extravascular factors.
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