Recent studies suggest that populations and species often exhibit behavioral syndromes; that is, suites of correlated behaviors across situations. An example is an aggression syndrome where some individuals are more aggressive, whereas others are less aggressive across a range of situations and contexts. The existence of behavioral syndromes focuses the attention of behavioral ecologists on limited (less than optimal) behavioral plasticity and behavioral carryovers across situations, rather than on optimal plasticity in each isolated situation. Behavioral syndromes can explain behaviors that appear strikingly non-adaptive in an isolated context (e.g. inappropriately high activity when predators are present, or excessive sexual cannibalism). Behavioral syndromes can also help to explain the maintenance of individual variation in behavioral types, a phenomenon that is ubiquitous, but often ignored. Recent studies suggest that the behavioral type of an individual, population or species can have important ecological and evolutionary implications, including major effects on species distributions, on the relative tendencies of species to be invasive or to respond well to environmental change, and on speciation rates. Although most studies of behavioral syndromes to date have focused on a few organisms, mainly in the laboratory, further work on other species, particularly in the field, should yield numerous new insights.Humans show consistent individual differences in personality [1]. For example, some people are generally more bold, whereas others are generally more shy. In statistical terms, the tendency for individuals to differ consistently in behavior (e.g. in boldness) across SITUATIONS (see Glossary) is quantified as a BEHAVIORAL CORRELATION ACROSS SITUATIONS. The analog of personality has been studied in considerable detail in a few primates, domesticated animals and laboratory rodents [2,3], with much of the focus being on the genetic and neuroendocrine bases of variation in BEHAVIORAL TYPE. However, recent studies by ethologists and behavioral ecologists have documented 'animal personalities' in a broad range of 'non-model organisms', including several mammals, birds, lizards, amphibians, fish, mollusks and arthropods [3]. Evolutionary ecologists refer to suites of correlated traits as syndromes; for example, life-history or dispersal syndromes [4,5]. We therefore refer to suites of correlated behaviors as BEHA-VIORAL SYNDROMES. A population or species can exhibit a behavioral syndrome with each individual showing a behavioral type (e.g. more bold or more shy). Alternatively, a group of species can exhibit a syndrome with each species having a behavioral type (e.g. species that are more bold versus those that are more shy).The idea of studying correlated suites of behaviors across situations represents an important shift in how behavioral ecologists typically address behavior [6]. In essence, when traits are correlated, they should be studied together, as a package, rather than as isolated units. Here, we des...

A behavioral syndrome is a suite of correlated behaviors expressed either within a given behavioral context (e.g., correlations between foraging behaviors in different habitats) or across different contexts (e.g., correlations among feeding, antipredator, mating, aggressive, and dispersal behaviors). For example, some individuals (and genotypes) might be generally more aggressive, more active or bold, while others are generally less aggressive, active or bold. This phenomenon has been studied in detail in humans, some primates, laboratory rodents, and some domesticated animals, but has rarely been studied in other organisms, and rarely examined from an evolutionary or ecological perspective. Here, we present an integrative overview on the potential importance of behavioral syndromes in evolution and ecology. A central idea is that behavioral correlations generate tradeoffs; for example, an aggressive genotype might do well in situations where high aggression is favored, but might be inappropriately aggressive in situations where low aggression is favored (and vice versa for a low aggression genotype). Behavioral syndromes can thereby result in maladaptive behavior in some contexts, and potentially maintain individual variation in behavior in a variable environment. We suggest terminology and methods for studying behavioral syndromes, review examples, discuss evolutionary and proximate approaches for understanding behavioral syndromes, note insights from human personality research, and outline some potentially important ecological implications. Overall, we suggest that behavioral syndromes could play a useful role as an integrative bridge between genetics, experience, neuroendocrine mechanisms, evolution, and ecology.

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The goal of this study was to identify the factors that influence the use of cardiac rehabilitation services by rural residents. The Andersen-Newman framework, which consists of three determinants of health services utilization (predisposing, enabling, and need factors), was used to direct this research. The three data collection points were at time of discharge from the hospital, two weeks post discharge, and one week following the date that the cardiac rehabilitation program would have been completed. Packets for the three data collection points were unique and contained instruments to assess various factors influencing the use of health services. The sample (N = 254) were adults living in rural areas who had experienced a cardiac event and received treatment at one of four hospitals in two western states and who provided useable data on all three questionnaires. Findings indicated that 72 (28%) of the participants attended some portion of a rehabilitation program, and only 43 (17%) completed the full 36-week program. Four predisposing factors, one enabling factor, and two need factors were significant in explaining the number of cardiac rehabilitation sessions attended. Further research is needed to validate these factors and to identify others which may influence the use of cardiac rehabilitation by rural residents. Likewise, it is essential to examine alternate ways to meet the rehabilitative needs of rural cardiac clients.

Sixty rural elders who had stopped driving as well as their friends and family members participated in a qualitative study to explore (a) the perceptions of older drivers regarding the influence of friends and family on their decision to stop driving, (b) the perceptions of friends and family regarding their influence on that decision, and (c) the impact that no longer driving had on the elder and his or her friends and family. Findings suggest that the support offered by friends and family played a significant role in the decision to stop driving. Increased loneliness and isolation impacted the older driver, although an enhanced sense of responsibility was evident among friends and family.

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