All-solid-state Li-ion batteries promise safer electrochemical energy storage with larger volumetric and gravimetric energy densities. A major concern is the limited electrochemical stability of solid electrolytes and related detrimental electrochemical reactions, especially because of our restricted understanding. Here we demonstrate for the argyrodite, garnet and NASICON type solid electrolytes, that the favourable decomposition pathway is indirect rather than direct, via (de)lithiated states of the solid electrolyte, into the thermodynamically stable decomposition products. The consequence is that the electrochemical stability window of the solid electrolyte is significantly larger than predicted for direct decomposition, rationalizing the observed stability window. The observed argyrodite metastable (de)lithiated solid electrolyte phases contribute to the (ir)reversible cycling capacity of all-solid-state batteries, in addition to the contribution of the decomposition products, comprehensively explaining solid electrolyte redox activity. The fundamental nature of the proposed mechanism suggests this is a key aspect for solid electrolytes in general, guiding interface and material design for all-solid-state batteries.3 All-solid-state-batteries (ASSBs) are attracting ever increasing attention due to their high intrinsic safety, achieved by replacing the flammable and reactive liquid electrolyte by a solid electrolyte 1 . In addition, a higher energy density in ASSBs may be achieved through; (a) bipolar stacking of the electrodes, which reduces the weight of the non-active battery parts and (b) by potentially enabling the use of a Li-metal anode, which possesses the maximum theoretical Li capacity and lowest electrochemical potential (3860 mAhg -1 and -3.04 V vs. SHE). First of all, the success of ASSBs relies on solid electrolytes with a high Li-ion conductivity 2-5 . A second prerequisite, is the electrochemical stability at the interfaces of the solid electrolyte with the electrode materials in the range of their working potentials. Any electrochemical decomposition of the solid electrolyte may lead to decomposition products with poor ionic conductivity that increase the internal battery resistance 2-4,6 . Third, ASSBs require mechanical stability as the changes in volume of the electrode materials upon (de)lithiation, as well as decomposition reactions at the electrode-electrolyte interface may lead to contact loss, also increasing the internal resistance and lowering the capacity 2-4 .

The high Li-ion conductivity of the argyrodite Li6PS5Cl makes it a promising solid electrolyte candidate for all-solid-state Li-ion batteries. For future application, it is essential to identify facile synthesis procedures and to relate the synthesis conditions to the solid electrolyte material performance. Here, a simple optimized synthesis route is investigated that avoids intensive ball milling by direct annealing of the mixed precursors at 550 °C for 10 h, resulting in argyrodite Li6PS5Cl with a high Li-ion conductivity of up to 4.96 × 10–3 S cm–1 at 26.2 °C. Both the temperature-dependent alternating current impedance conductivities and solid-state NMR spin–lattice relaxation rates demonstrate that the Li6PS5Cl prepared under these conditions results in a higher conductivity and Li-ion mobility compared to materials prepared by the traditional mechanical milling route. The origin of the improved conductivity appears to be a combination of the optimal local Cl structure and its homogeneous distribution in the material. All-solid-state cells consisting of an 80Li2S–20LiI cathode, the optimized Li6PS5Cl electrolyte, and an In anode showed a relatively good electrochemical performance with an initial discharge capacity of 662.6 mAh g–1 when a current density of 0.13 mA cm–2 was used, corresponding to a C-rate of approximately C/20. On direct comparison with a solid-state battery using a solid electrolyte prepared by the mechanical milling route, the battery made with the new material exhibits a higher initial discharge capacity and Coulombic efficiency at a higher current density with better cycling stability. Nevertheless, the cycling stability is limited by the electrolyte stability, which is a major concern for these types of solid-state batteries.

By tailoring the Br ordering over the 4a and 4c sites, Li6PS5Br with ultrafast ionic conductivity was achieved, which can be worked as both active material and solid electrolyte in all-solid-state Li–S batteries.

The Young modulus for crystalline polyethylene is calculated using ab initio molecular dynamics based on density functional theory in the local density approximation (DFT-LDA). This modulus, which can be seen as the ultimate value for the Young modulus of polyethylene fibers, is found to be 334 GPa. For the first time the modulus is evaluated ab initio (no bias from experimental data) with demonstrated basis set convergence.

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We present ab initio calculations concerning the bond scission rate in a polyethylene chain. The energy barrier for scission is calculated both by using an effective potential scheme based on ab initio data and from the ab initio transition state itself. In the latter case the prefactor for scission is calculated. In both methods the relaxation of the polymer chain is taken into account, leading to a strong strain dependence of the energy barrier. The two schemes agree quantitatively. The barrier is reduced from 3.9 eV at zero strain to 1.7 eV at a strain of 5%. The calculated scission rate is used to estimate the strength of a polyethylene fiber consisting of perfectly aligned, independent chains in a constant strain rate experiment resulting in 18 GPa at a strain of 8%. This value of the ultimate strength is a factor 2 larger than found in experiments. This contrasts previously reported quantum chemical calculations, which reported values a factor 5-10 larger than the experimental values.

The Car-Paninello technique is used to study the electronic structure of orthorhombic polyethylene as well as the elastic modulus. The theoretical band structure and density of states are in very good agreement with experiments. The best experimentally realized elastic modulus is better than 86% of the presented theoretical value. Copyright 0 1998 Elsevier Science B.V.

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