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N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors are tetrameric protein complexes composed of the glycine-binding NR1 subunit with a glutamate-binding NR2 and/or glycine-binding NR3 subunit. Tri-heteromeric receptors containing NR1, NR2, and NR3 subunits reconstitute channels, which differ strikingly in many properties from the respective glycine-and glutamate-gated NR1/NR2 complexes and the NR1/NR3 receptors gated by glycine alone. Therefore, an accurate oligomerization process of the different subunits has to assure proper NMDA receptor assembly, which has been assumed to occur via the oligomerization of homodimers. Indeed, using fluorescence resonance energy transfer analysis of differentially fluorescence-tagged subunits and blue native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis after metabolic labeling and affinity purification revealed that the NR1 subunit is capable of forming homo-oligomeric aggregates. In contrast, both the NR2 and the NR3 subunits formed homo-and hetero-oligomers only in the presence of the NR1 subunit indicating differential roles of the subunits in NMDA receptor assembly. However, co-expression of the NR3A subunit with an N-terminal domain-deleted NR1 subunit (NR1 ⌬NTD ) abrogating NR1 and NR1-containing hetero-oligomers are readily formed, we assume that heterodimerization of the NR1 with an NR3 or NR2 subunit, which is followed by the subsequent association of two heterodimers, is the key step in determining proper NMDA receptor subunit assembly and stoichiometry.Excitatory neurotransmission in the mammalian brain is mainly mediated by ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs). 4Based on pharmacological studies, iGluRs have been grouped into three distinct subfamilies: (RS)-2-amino-3-(3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolyl)propionic acid (AMPA) receptors, kainate receptors, and N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptors (1). All iGluR subunits share a common modular design of four distinct regions: (i) an extracellular N-terminal domain (NTD) of about 400 amino acids sharing homology with the bacterial leucine-, isoleucine-, and valine-binding protein, implicated to play a role in iGluR oligomerization and modulation, (ii) an extracellular S1S2 ligand binding domain sharing homology with the bacterial glutamine-binding protein that binds agonists in a Venus-flytrap like mechanism, (iii) a membrane-associated domain composed of four membrane segments forming the ion channel, and (iv) an intracellular C-terminal domain involved in linking the receptor to the membrane scaffold and signal transduction proteins (2).The NMDA subtype of iGluRs is an obligatory hetero-oligomeric membrane protein composed of homologous NR1, NR2, and/or NR3 subunits and plays a key role in brain development, synaptic plasticity, and memory formation (1). Cloning of NMDA receptor subunits revealed that the glycine-binding NR1 subunit is a single gene product occurring in eight splice variants (a-h), whereas the glutamate-binding NR2 and the glycine-binding NR3 subunits are encoded by four (NR2A-NR2D) and two (NR3A and -B) different genes...

The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) is a tetrameric protein composed of homologous NR1 and NR2 subunits, which require the binding of glycine and glutamate, respectively, for efficient channel gating. The extracellular N-terminal domains (NTDs) of iGluR subunits show sequence homology to the bacterial periplasmic leucine/isoleucine/valine binding protein (LIVBP) and have been implicated in iGluR assembly, trafficking, and function. Here, we investigated how deletion of the NR1-and NR2-NTDs affects the expression and function of NMDA receptors. Both proteolytic cleavage of the NR1-NTD from assembled NR1/ NR2 receptors and coexpression of the NTD-deleted NR1 subunit with wild-type or NTD-deleted NR2 subunits resulted in agonist-gated channels that closely resembled wild-type receptors. This indicates that the NTDs of both NMDA receptor subunits are not essential for receptor assembly and function. However, deletion of either the NR1 or the NR2 NTD eliminated high-affinity, allosteric inhibition of agonist-induced currents by Zn 2ϩ and ifenprodil, consistent with the idea that interdomain interactions between these domains are important for allosteric receptor modulation. Furthermore, by replacing the NR2A-NTD with the NR2B NTD, and vice versa, the different glycine affinities of NR1/NR2A and NR1/NR2B receptors were found to be determined by their respective NR2-NTDs. Together, these data show that the NTDs of both the NR1 and NR2 subunits determine allosteric inhibition and glycine potency but are not required for NMDA receptor assembly.

Rationale Oxytocin receptors (Oxtr) are important mediators of social learning and emotion, with bidirectional effects on fear and anxiety. Contrary to the anxiolytic actions of Oxtr in the amygdala, we recently showed that Oxtr in the lateral septum mediate the enhancement of fear conditioning by social defeat in mice. Objectives Using positive social interactions, which impair fear conditioning, here we attempted to delineate whether the role septal Oxtr in fear regulation depends on the valence of the social memory. Methods Pharmacological and genetic manipulations of lateral septal Oxtr were combined with the social buffering of fear paradigm, in which pre-exposure to nonfearful conspecifics reduces subsequent contextual fear conditioning, as revealed by decreased freezing behavior. Results Antagonism and down-regulation of Oxtr in the lateral septum abolished, while oxytocin (Oxt) administration before pre-exposure to nonfearful conspecifics facilitated the decrease of freezing behavior. Conclusions The septal oxytocin system enhances memory of social interactions regardless of their valence, reducing fear after positive and enhancing fear after negative social encounters. These findings explain, at least in part, the seemingly bidirectional role of Oxt in fear regulation.

Social interactions in vertebrates are complex phenomena based on affective and cognitive processes. Multiple brain regions and neurotransmitter systems are involved in the expression of social behaviors, but their individual roles in specific aspects of social interactions are not well understood. Here we investigated how Gq-protein-coupled metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) and oxytocin receptor (Oxtr) affect social affiliation and social memory. We used conditional genetic approaches in which the genes coding for these receptors were knocked out in the lateral septum by infusion of recombinant adeno-associated viral vectors containing Cre recombinase (AAV-Cre). Social behavior was assessed 2 weeks later using a three-chamber paradigm for sociability and preference for social novelty. Septal deletion of mGluR5 abolished sociability while leaving preference for social novelty intact. In contrast, deletion of Oxtr did not affect sociability but significantly impaired preference for social novelty. Nonsocial behaviors or memories, including novel object recognition or fear conditioning, were not affected by these genetic manipulations. Immunohistochemical analyses of the distribution of mGluR5 and Oxtr revealed non-overlapping localization of these receptors within the lateral septum, suggesting that not only different neurotransmitters but also different neuronal types contribute to sociability versus preference for social novelty. Our findings identify highly specialized roles of lateral septal mGluR5 and Oxtr in the the regulation of discrete social behaviors, and suggest that deficits in social interactions, which accompany many mental illnesses, would benefit from comprehensive treatments targeting different components of social functioning.

Kv2.1 channels, which are expressed in brain, heart, pancreas, and other organs and tissues, are important targets for drug design. Flecainide and propafenone are known to block Kv2.1 channels more potently than other Kv channels. Here, we sought to explore structural determinants of this selectivity. We demonstrated that flecainide reduced the K ؉ currents through Kv2.1 channels expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes in a voltageand time-dependent manner. By systematically exchanging various segments of Kv2.1 with those from Kv1.2, we determined flecainide-sensing residues in the P-helix and inner helix S6. These residues are not exposed to the inner pore, a conventional binding region of open channel blockers. The flecainide-sensing residues also contribute to propafenone binding, suggesting overlapping receptors for the drugs. Indeed, propafenone and flecainide compete for binding in Kv2.1. We further used Monte Carlo-energy minimizations to map the receptors of the drugs. Flecainide docking in the Kv1.2-based homology model of Kv2.1 predicts the ligand ammonium group in the central cavity and the benzamide moiety in a niche between S6 and the P-helix. Propafenone also binds in the niche. Its carbonyl group accepts an H-bond from the P-helix, the amino group donates an H-bond to the P-loop turn, whereas the propyl group protrudes in the pore and blocks the access to the selectivity filter. Thus, besides the binding region in the central cavity, certain K ؉ channel ligands can expand in the subunit interface whose residues are less conserved between K ؉ channels and hence may be targets for design of highly desirable subtype-specific K ؉ channel drugs.Potassium channels are crucial in physiology. Medically important drugs block the open pore, which is formed by four subunits. Each subunit consists of transmembrane ␣-helical segments S1-S6 and the membrane re-entering extracellular P-loop. The pore-forming domain is composed of four S5-P-S6

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N-methyl D-aspartate receptors (NMDAR) play crucial role in normal brain function and pathogenesis of neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders. Functional tetra-heteromeric NMDAR contains two obligatory GluN1 subunits and two identical or different non-GluN1 subunits that include six different gene products; four GluN2 (A–D) and two GluN3 (A–B) subunits. The heterogeneity of subunit combination facilities the distinct function of NMDARs. All GluN subunits contain an extracellular N-terminal Domain (NTD) and ligand binding domain (LBD), transmembrane domain (TMD) and an intracellular C-terminal domain (CTD). Interaction between the GluN1 and co-assembling GluN2/3 subunits through the LBD has been proven crucial for defining receptor deactivation mechanisms that are unique for each combination of NMDAR. Modulating the LBD interactions has great therapeutic potential. In the present work, by amino acid point mutations and electrophysiology techniques, we have studied the role of LBD interactions in determining the effect of well-characterized pharmacological agents including agonists, competitive antagonists, and allosteric modulators. The results reveal that agonists (glycine and glutamate) potency was altered based on mutant amino acid sidechain chemistry and/or mutation site. Most antagonists inhibited mutant receptors with higher potency; interestingly, clinically used NMDAR channel blocker memantine was about three-fold more potent on mutated receptors (N521A, N521D, and K531A) than wild type receptors. These results provide novel insights on the clinical pharmacology of memantine, which is used for the treatment of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease. In addition, these findings demonstrate the central role of LBD interactions that can be exploited to develop novel NMDAR based therapeutics.