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The continuous monitoring of crop water status is key to the sustainable management of water stress situations. Two deficit irrigation (DI) treatments were studied during the maximum evapotranspirative demand period in an orange orchard (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osb. cv. Navelina): sustained deficit irrigation irrigated at 55% crop evapotranspiration (ETC), and low-frequency deficit irrigation treatment, in which the plants were irrigated according to stem water potential at midday (Ψstem). Additionally, a control treatment irrigated at 100% of ETC was established. The daily canopy temperature (TC) was measured with an infrared thermometer camera together with measurements of trunk diameter fluctuations (TDF), Ψstem and stomatal conductance (gS). The time course of all physiological parameters and their relationships were analysed, confirming that canopy air temperature differential (TC – Ta) variations and TDF are suitable approaches for determining the water stress. In addition, the maximum daily shrinkage (MDS) and TC – Ta showed high sensitivity to water stress in comparison to Ψstem and gS. Significant relationships were found among MDS and TC – Ta with Ψstem and gS, for monitoring the crop water status by means of MDS vs Ψstem and TC – Ta vs Ψstem. Thus, the combination of these techniques would be useful for making scheduling decisions on irrigation in orchards with high variability in plant water stress.

Olive is a key crop in the Mediterranean basin, socially, economically, and environmentally, being a major source of rural employment. Organic products such as olive oil have attracted many types of consumers in recent years. In this context, the Mediterranean basin represents 5 Mha of the 10 Mha of olive farming worldwide, with Spain being the leading producer. Also, during the recent decades, olive farmers met the challenges of sustainability by implementing principles of agroecological production. Therefore, the focal point is no longer exclusively on yields but also on the quality, health, and environmental aspects of products and systems. In this work, we review and analyse the global situation of organic farming, focusing on the development, current status, perspectives, and opportunities of organic olive farming in Andalusia (S Spain). In addition, we assess the environmental benefits and consequences of the shift from conventional to organic management of olive orchards, focusing on the improvement of soil quality and biodiversity. Also, the general factors affecting the decision making for acquiring organic olive oil are discussed. Our main findings show the following: (1) It is necessary to encourage educational and research programmes to promote the demand for these products, positively affecting consumer health, protecting the environment, and improving rural economies. (2) The future of organic agriculture will depend on its economic viability and on the determination shown by governments to protect these practices. (3) Further support for funding research is needed to continue studying the effect of olive cultivation on soil biological quality, changes in soil properties, and biodiversity. More importantly, these beneficial extra outputs produced for society must be interiorised in economic value to compensate organic oil producers. (4) Finally, a clear understanding of attitudes and preferences, as well as the motivations of consumer when making the choice for organic olive products, is essential in responding to this specific demand. However, as stated above, major institutional and educational actions are also needed in order to boost sustainable organic olive farming and thus the preference for organic olive oil.

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Different tools are being implemented in order to improve the water management in agricultural irrigated areas of semiarid environments. Thermography has been progressively introduced as a promising technique for irrigation scheduling and the assessing of crop-water status, especially when deficit irrigation is being implemented. However, an important limitation is related to the cost of the actual cameras, this being a severe limitation to its practical usage by farmers and technicians. This work evaluates the potential and the robustness of a thermal imaging camera that is connected to smartphone (Flir One) recently developed by Flir Systems Inc. as a first step to assess the crop water status. The trial was developed in mature almond (Prunus dulcis Mill.) trees that are subjected to different irrigation treatments. Thermal information obtained by the Flir One camera was deal with the thermal information obtained with a conventional Thermal Camera (Flir SC660) with a high resolution, and subsequently, confronted with other related plant physiological parameters (leaf water potential, Ψleaf, and stomatal conductance, gs). Thermal imaging camera connected to smartphone provided useful information in estimating the crop-water status in almond trees, being a potential promising tool to accelerate the monitoring process and thereby enhance water-stress management of almond orchards.

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