Genetic diversity of crop species in sub-Sahelian Africa is still poorly documented. Among such crops, pearl millet is one of the most important staple species. In Niger, pearl millet covers more than 65% of the total cultivated area. Analyzing pearl millet genetic diversity, its origin and its dynamics is important for in situ and ex situ germplasm conservation and to increase knowledge useful for breeding programs. We developed new genetic markers and a high-throughput technique for the genetic analysis of pearl millet. Using 25 microsatellite markers, we analyzed genetic diversity in 46 wild and 421 cultivated accessions of pearl millet in Niger. We showed a significantly lower number of alleles and lower gene diversity in cultivated pearl millet accessions than in wild accessions. This result contrasts with a previous study using iso-enzyme markers showing similar genetic diversity between cultivated and wild pearl millet populations. We found a strong differentiation between the cultivated and wild groups in Niger. Analyses of introgressions between cultivated and wild accessions showed modest but statistically supported evidence of introgressions. Wild accessions in the central region of Niger showed introgressions of cultivated alleles. Accessions of cultivated pearl millet showed introgressions of wild alleles in the western, central, and eastern parts of Niger.

Understanding the geographical, environmental and social patterns of genetic diversity on different spatial scales is key to the sustainable in situ management of genetic resources. However, few surveys have been conducted on crop genetic diversity using exhaustive in situ germplasm collections on a country scale and such data are missing for sorghum in sub-Saharan Africa, its centre of origin. We report here a genetic analysis of 484 sorghum varieties collected in 79 villages evenly distributed across Niger, using 28 microsatellite markers. We found a high level of SSR diversity in Niger. Diversity varied between eastern and western Niger, and allelic richness was lower in the eastern part of the country. Genetic differentiation between botanical races was the first structuring factor (Fst = 0.19), but the geographical distribution and the ethnic group to which farmers belonged were also significantly associated with genetic diversity partitioning. Gene pools are poorly differentiated among climatic zones. The geographical situation of Niger, where typical western African (guinea), central African (caudatum) and eastern Sahelian African (durra) sorghum races converge, explained the high observed genetic diversity and was responsible for the interactions among the ethnic, geographical and botanical structure revealed in our study. After correcting for the structure of botanical races, spatial correlation of genetic diversity was still detected within 100 km, which may hint at limited seed exchanges between farmers. Sorghum domestication history, in relation to the spatial organisation of human societies, is therefore key information for sorghum in situ conservation programs in sub-Saharan Africa.

Climate changes will have an impact on food production and will require costly adaptive responses. Adapting to a changing environment will be particularly challenging in sub-Saharan Africa where climate change is expected to have a major impact. However, one important phenomenon that is often overlooked and is poorly documented is the ability of agro-systems to rapidly adapt to environmental variations. Such an adaptation could proceed by the adoption of new varieties or by the adaptation of varieties to a changing environment. In this study, we analyzed these two processes in one of the driest agro-ecosystems in Africa, the Sahel. We performed a detailed study in Niger where pearl millet is the main crop and covers 65% of the cultivated area. To assess how the agro-system is responding to recent recurrent drought, we analyzed samples of pearl millet landraces collected in the same villages in 1976 and 2003 throughout the entire cultivated area of Niger. We studied phenological and morphological differences in the 1976 and 2003 collections by comparing them over three cropping seasons in a common garden experiment. We found no major changes in the main cultivated varieties or in their genetic diversity. However, we observed a significant shift in adaptive traits. Compared to the 1976 samples, samples collected in 2003 displayed a shorter lifecycle, and a reduction in plant and spike size. We also found that an early flowering allele at the PHYC locus increased in frequency between 1976 and 2003. The increase exceeded the effect of drift and sampling, suggesting a direct effect of selection for earliness on this gene. We conclude that recurrent drought can lead to selection for earlier flowering in a major Sahelian crop. Surprisingly, these results suggest that diffusion of crop varieties is not the main driver of short term adaptation to climatic variation.

Changes in the diversity of landraces in centres of diversity of cultivated plants need to be assessed in order to monitor and conserve agrobioversity-a key-element of sustainable agriculture.This notably applies in tropical areas where factors such as increased populations, climate change and shifts in cropping systems are hypothesized to cause varietal erosion. To assess varietal erosion of staple crops in a country subjected to various anthropogenic and natural environmental changes, we carried out a study based on a comparison of the diversity of pearl millet and sorghum varieties collected in 79 villages spanning the entire cereal-growing zone of Niger over a 26 year period . For these two crops, the number, name and type of varieties according to important traits for farmers were considered at different spatial scales (country, region, village) at the two collection dates. The results confirmed the high diversity of millet and sorghum varieties in Niger. No erosion of varietal diversity was noted on a national scale during the period covered. Some changes were observed but were limited to the geographical distribution of certain varieties. This highlights that farmers' management can preserve the diversity of millet and sorghum varieties in Niger despite recurrent and severe drought periods and major social changes. It also indicates that rainfed cereal cropping systems in Niger should remain to be based on millet and sorghum, while reinforcing farmers' seed systems.

Information about the potential for crop–wild hybridization is needed to understand how crop genes, including transgenes, affect the population genetics and ecology of sexually compatible relatives. Transgenic sorghum is under development for use by traditional farmers in Africa, the center of origin for sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench], but systematic surveys of the current extent of contact with wild and weedy relatives are lacking. We studied wild and weedy sorghums that are interfertile with the crop and constitute a crop–wild–weed complex. The survey was conducted in 2005 in areas of traditional sorghum cultivation in three regions of Ethiopia and two regions of Niger. Within each region, we examined eight representative sorghum fields at each of 10 locations during peak flowering of the crop. In all regions, wild and weedy sorghum occurred intermixed with and adjacent to cultivated sorghum. Wild and weedy sorghums were detected at 56, 44, and 13% of the Ethiopian sites (Amhara, Tigray, and Hararghe regions, respectively), and 74 and 63% of sites in Niger (Maradi‐Tahoua and Tillabery‐Dosso regions, respectively). Flowering periods of wild and weedy sorghum populations overlapped with those of cultivated sorghum at most sites where the two co‐occurred, especially in Ethiopia, and many putative crop–wild hybrids were observed. Therefore, current gene transfer from cultivated sorghum to wild and weedy sorghum populations in Ethiopia and Niger is likely to be widespread.