Fungal chitin synthases (CHSs) form fibers of the cell wall and are crucial for substrate invasion and pathogenicity. Filamentous fungi contain up to 10 CHSs, which might reflect redundant functions or the complex biology of these fungi. Here, we investigate the complete repertoire of eight CHSs in the dimorphic plant pathogen Ustilago maydis. We demonstrate that all CHSs are expressed in yeast cells and hyphae. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusions to all CHSs localize to septa, whereas Chs5-GFP, Chs6-GFP, Chs7-yellow fluorescent protein (YFP), and Myosin chitin synthase1 (Mcs1)-YFP were found at growth regions of yeast-like cells and hyphae, indicating that they participate in tip growth. However, only the class IV CHS genes chs7 and chs5 are crucial for shaping yeast cells and hyphae ex planta. Although most CHS mutants were attenuated in plant pathogenicity, Dchs6, Dchs7, and Dmcs1 mutants were drastically reduced in virulence. Dmcs1 showed no morphological defects in hyphae, but Mcs1 became essential during invasion of the plant epidermis. Dmcs1 hyphae entered the plant but immediately lost growth polarity and formed large aggregates of spherical cells. Our data show that the polar class IV CHSs are essential for morphogenesis ex planta, whereas the class V myosin-CHS is essential during plant infection.

In animals, the nuclear envelope disassembles in mitosis, while budding and fission yeast form an intranuclear spindle. Ultrastructural data indicate that basidiomycetes, such as the pathogen Ustilago maydis, undergo an 'open mitosis'. Here we describe the mechanism of nuclear envelope break-down in U. maydis. In interphase, the nucleus resides in the mother cell and the spindle pole body is inactive. Prior to mitosis, it becomes activated and nucleates microtubules that reach into the daughter cell. Dynein appears at microtubule tips and exerts force on the spindle pole body, which leads to the formation of a long nuclear extension that reaches into the bud. Chromosomes migrate through this extension and together with the spindle pole bodies leave the old envelope, which remains in the mother cell until late telophase. Inhibition of nuclear migration or deletion of a Tem1p-like GTPase leads to a 'closed' mitosis, indicating that spindle pole bodies have to reach into the bud where MEN signalling participates in envelope removal. Our data indicate that dynein-mediated premitotic nuclear migration is essential for envelope removal in U. maydis.

In the early stages of plant infection, yeast-like haploid sporidia of Ustilago maydis respond to pheromone secreted by compatible partners by forming conjugation tubes. These then fuse to generate a dikaryotic hypha that forms appressoria to penetrate the host plant. As a first step toward understanding the structural requirements for these transitions, we have identified myo5 , which encodes a class-V myosin. Analysis of conditional and null mutants revealed that Myo5 plays nonessential roles in cytokinesis and morphogenesis in sporidia and is required for hyphal morphology. Consistent with a role in morphogenesis, a functional green fluorescent protein-Myo5 fusion protein localized to the bud tip and the hyphal apex as well as to the septa and the spore wall during later stages of infection. However, the loss of Myo5 did not affect the tip growth of hyphae and sporidia. By contrast, Myo5 was indispensable for conjugation tube formation. Furthermore, myo5 mutants were impaired in the perception of pheromones, which indicates a particular importance of Myo5 in the mating process. Consequently, few mutant hyphae were formed that penetrated the plant epidermis but did not continue invasive growth. These results indicate a crucial role of Myo5 in the morphogenesis, dimorphic switch, and pathogenicity of U. maydis .

We have investigated the influence of the electrolyte pH on formic acid (HCOOH) electro-oxidation on both polycrystalline Pt and Au electrodes, and on single-crystalline Au electrodes in perchloric and sulphuric acid based electrolytes. On Au electrodes, the potentiodynamic oxidation currents are found to depend in a nonlinear way on the electrolyte pH, in a bell-shaped relation with a maximum of the catalytic activity at the pKa of HCOOH. On polycrystalline Pt electrodes, this feature is not observed and the catalytic activity increases steadily with increasing pH up to pH ≈ 5 followed by a plateau until pH 10, in contrast with recent observations [T. Joo et al., J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 135 (2013) 9991]. In addition, for Au surfaces, the reaction is only weakly influenced by the electrode surface structure, while for Pt structural effects are known to be considerable. Anion effects, in contrast, are much stronger for reaction on Au than for Pt electrodes. Also, it is shown that Pt group metal free Au electrodes do not oxidize molecular hydrogen under reaction conditions. The results are discussed in relation to findings in previous mechanistic studies. Most important, the activity is on both electrodes closely correlated with the concentration of HCOO -anions, for Au with both HCOO -and HCOOH concentrations. Based on these results, a number of mechanistic proposals put forward in earlier studies must be discarded, examples for mechanisms compatible with these results are discussed.

Cyclin-dependent kinases from the Cdk5/Pho85 family are thought to play important roles in morphogenesis in organisms as diverse as yeast and humans. Here we used the corn smut fungus Ustilago maydis to address the role of Cdk5/Pho85 kinases in the morphogenesis and virulence of dimorphic phytopathogens. We found that Cdk5 is essential for growth in U. maydis. A temperature-sensitive cdk5 mutant caused cell wall and morphology defects at the restrictive temperature. Actin patches labeled with a fimbrin-GFP fusion protein were delocalized and a GFP-Myo5 fusion was directed towards the growing cell pole and rapidly dissociated from the tip. These defects were found to be due to an impairment in the maintenance of cell polarity. Our results indicated that Cdk5 is required for the activity of Rac1, probably at the level of the localization of its GEF, Cdc24. Cdk5 was required for full virulence, probably because mutant cells are unable to sustain the dramatic polar growth required for the formation of the infective structures. These results support a major role for morphogenesis in the virulence program of dimorphic fungi.

Aiming at a deeper understanding of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation on carbon anodes in lithium-ion batteries, we performed a combined electrochemical and spectroscopic model study using structurally well-defined graphite model electrodes (highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, HOPG) and simplified model electrolytes (ethylene carbonate (EC) + 1 M LiPF 6 or dimethyl carbonate (DMC) + 1 M LiPF 6 ). In cyclic voltammetry measurements, we find initial activation of the reductive electrolyte decomposition at faster scan rates (1 or 10 mV s À 1 ), whereas this is not the case at a slower scan rate (0.1 mV s À 1 ). This activation effect, which is more pronounced for DMC, is explained by an increase in the HOPG surface area, presumably by electrode exfoliation; it is not observed on surface-defect-rich samples. XPS analysis shows that, regardless of the solvent and the scan rate, the SEI is mainly composed of LiF and only small amounts of solvent and other salt decomposition products.[a] I.

Aiming at a fundamental understanding of the synergistic effects of different additives on the electrochemical Mg deposition/dissolution in an ionic liquid, we have systematically investigated these processes in a combined electrochemical and theoretical study, using 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis (trifluoromethylsulfonyl) imide (BMP-TFSI) as the solvent and a cyclic ether (18-crown-6) and magnesium borohydride as additives. Both crown ether and BH 4 À improve Mg deposition, its reversibility, and cycling stability. The combined presence of both additives and their concentration relative to that of Mg 2 + are decisive for more facile and reversible Mg deposition/ dissolution. These results and those of quantum chemical calculations indicate that 18-crown-6 can partly displace TFSI À from its direct coordination to Mg 2 +. Furthermore, the interaction between Mg 2 + and directly coordinated TFSI À is weakened by coordination with 18-crown-6, preventing its Mg +-induced decomposition. Finally, Mg deposition is improved by the weaker overall coordination upon Mg 2 + reduction to Mg + .

ConclusionsAiminga tabetter understanding of the formation and compositiono ft he SEI layer on carbon electrodes in an ionic liquid electrolyte ([BMP][TFSI] + 0.1 m LiTFSI), we have investigated